Izumi Shimada
Biographic Data
| ID | 124991 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Izumi Shimada |
| GIVEN NAMES | Izumi |
| FAMILY NAME | Shimada |
| SIGNATURE | SHIMADA I |
| AFFILIATIONS | Princeton University |
| ORCID | 0000-0003-4595-2964 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 46 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 402 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 44 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 2 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1971 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2021 |
| H-INDEX | 12 |
Naipes: Functions and Significance of Middle Sicán Standardized Sheetmetal Artifacts
The enigmatic naipes, the I-shaped, standardized, arsenical copper sheet artifacts occur in a few to thousands of bundles in elite Sicán tombs on the northern north coast of Peru. Examination of their production process, use contexts, spatio-temporal parameters, and levels of standardization show them to be Middle Sicán (900-1100 CE) in time and cultural origin and locally produced. Naipes seemed to have served two context-dependent purposes as t…
Living with the Dead: Mortuary Ritual in Mesoamerica
Technology and organization of black pottery production on the north coast of Peru
Not all «black» pottery was produced in the same manner just as their social and symbolic uses and reasons for production varied a good deal. Nor are many examples truly black. The Middle Sicán culture (AD 900-1100) on the north coast of Peru distinguished itself with the perfection and large-scale production of black pottery made of fine paste. Based on our «holistic» study of a Middle Sicán workshop (including experimental firing and detailed c…
Dental and mtDNA Relatedness Among Thousand-Year-Old Remains from Huaca Loro, Peru
Within and between tombs at the site of Huaca Loro (ca. A.D. 1000) on north coastal Peru, biological relatedness based on 23 dental characters follows statistically significant patterns. mtDNA groupings that are based on lineages inferred from inherited derived D-loop bp sequences have also been traced among the individuals. The present study finds a significant, although rather poorly predictive, relation between mtDNA and dental interindividual…
The Inka Empire: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Massive yet elegantly executed masonry architecture and andenes (agricultural terraces) set against majestic and seemingly boundless Andean landscapes, roads built in defiance of rugged terrains, and fine textiles with orderly geometric designs—all were created within the largest political system in the ancient New World, a system headed, paradoxically, by a single, small minority group without wheeled vehicles, markets, or a writing system, the …
Assessing the Chronology and Rewrapping of Funerary Bundles at the Prehispanic Religious Center of Pachacamac, Peru
Over 30 funerary bundles were excavated in 2005 from a large chamber tomb at the prehispanic religious center of Pachacamac on the central coast of Peru. The largest and most elaborate bundle was found in the innermost part of the tomb, tightly surrounded by other bundles. We hypothesized that this bundle contained the deceased leader of a social group whose members collectively cared for their ancestor's bundle (for example, by rewrapping it) an…
The Style, Technology and Organization of Sicán Mining and Metallurgy, Northern Peru: Insights From Holistic Study
This paper explains what Shimada has termed a holistic approach to craft production and illustrates its value by discussing insights gained into the style, technology, and organization of Middle and Late Sicán (ca. AD 900-1,375) mining and copper-arsenic metallurgy. After a brief characterization of the geographical and cultural settings of pertinent research by the Sicán Archaeological Project (1978-present) and the holistic approach, we discuss…
Paleoenvironmental catastrophies on the Peruvian coast revealed in lagoon sediment cores from Pachacamac
Pre-Columbian alloys from the royal tombs of Sipán and from the Museum of Sicán: Non-destructive XRF analysis with a portable equipment
On the north coast of present-day Peru, approximately between 50 and 700 AD, flourished the Moche civilization. It was an advanced culture, and the Moche were sophisticated metalsmiths. The Moche metal working ability was impressively shown by the excavations of the “Tumbas Reales de Sipán”, discovered by W. Alva and co-workers in 1987.The Sicán culture is a successive civilization (750-1375 AD) which extended as far as present day Piura in the n…
The Art and Archaeology of the Moche: An Ancient Andean Society of the Peruvian North Coast
Preface (Steve Bourget) Introduction (Steve Bourget and Kimberly L. Jones) Chapter 1. Iconography Meets Archaeology (Elizabeth P. Benson) Chapter 2. Sacrifices and Ceremonial Calendars in Societies of the Central Andes: A Reconsideration (Anne Marie Hocquenghem) Chapter 3. Ulluchu: An Elusive Fruit (Donna McClelland) Chapter 4. Moche Masking Traditions (Christopher B. Donnan) Chapter 5. Convergent Catastrophe and the Demise of Dos Cabezas: Enviro…
Craft Production in Complex Societies: Multicraft and Producer Perspectives (Foundations of Archaeological Inquiry)
Mitochondrial DNA analysis of ancient Peruvian highlanders
Ancient DNA recovered from 57 individuals excavated by Hiram Bingham at the rural communities of Paucarcancha, Patallacta, and Huata near the famed Inca royal estate and ritual site of Machu Picchu was analyzed by polymerase chain reaction, and the results were compared with ancient and modern DNA from various Central Andean areas to test their hypothesized indigenous highland origins. The control and coding regions of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDN…
Una nueva evaluación de la Plaza de los Peregrinos de Pachacamac: Aportes de la primera campaña 2003 del Proyecto Arqueólogico Pachacamac
Durante los meses de junio a agosto del año 2003, el Proyecto Arqueológico Pachacamac, bajo la co-dirección de Izumi Shimada, Rafael Segura Llanos y María Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, llevó a cabo su primera temporada de campo, en el marco de un programa de investigaciones de largo plazo. Este proyecto, de carácter interdisciplinario e internacional, tiene como principal orientación el estudio de los fundamentos sociales y el contexto natural de…
An Integrated Analysis of Pre-Hispanic Mortuary Practices: A Middle Sicn Case Study
Recent debate has raised serious questions about the viability of the social and ideological reconstruction of prehistoric culture on the basis of mortuary analysis. In recent years bioarchaeology has gained considerable prominence, underscoring the fact that death, burials, and associated mortuary practices are multifaceted phenomena shaped by biological, social, ideological, and taphonomic factors. Few studies attempting social reconstruction t…
Moche
Batan Grande
Sicán
Pampa Grande
Dental relatedness corresponding to mortuary patterning at Huaca Loro, Peru
Within and between tombs at the 1,000‐year‐old site of Huaca Loro on north coastal Peru, interment characteristics vary to an intriguing degree. Following and elaborating upon prior intracemetery studies, biological relatedness among associated burial groupings was assessed using 23 dental characters (assuming familial allele segregation) for 29 individuals. Biological patterning was based on multivariate distance between individuals using all tr…
Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture
Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture
Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture
Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture] demonstrates what archaeologists can achieve in terms of reading cultural meaning from the material record. . . . Clear, thoughtful, detailed, and balanced, it is one of the finest treatments of a prehistoric culture that I have ever read. -- Latin American Indian Literatures Journal In Shimada's elegantly illustrated, well argued and documented book, he undertakes the task of exploring the complex causes for…
A possible case of metastatic carcinoma in a middle Sican burial from Batán Grande, Perú
The skeleton of a young to middle-aged adult excavated at the base of the Pre-Incaic pyramid of Huaca Las Ventanas, northern coast of Peru, shows an osteoplastic formation on the fifth lumbar vertebra compatible with a diagnosis of metastatic carcinoma, possibly from the prostate gland
Cultural impacts of severe droughts in the prehistoric Andes: Application of a 1,500-year ice core precipitation record
Late in the sixth century, Andean peoples experienced major cultural upheavals, including a notable settlement shift of the classic Mochica culture on the northern Peruvian coast. A recently established annual precipitation record derived from ice cores from the Quelccaya glacier in southern Peru allows assessment of the possible role of climatic disturbances in northern Peru. Both areas are in the same tropical climatic regime. A comparison betw…
Peruvian Prehistory: An Overview of Pre-Inca and Inca Society
Cultural impacts of severe droughts in the prehistoric Andes: Application of a 1,500-year ice core precipitation record
Late in the sixth century, Andean peoples experienced major cultural upheavals, including a notable settlement shift of the classic Mochica culture on the northern Peruvian coast. A recently established annual precipitation record derived from ice cores from the Quelccaya glacier in southern Peru allows assessment of the possible role of climatic disturbances in northern Peru. Both areas are in the same tropical climatic regime. A comparison betw…
Prehistoric Llama Breeding and Herding on the North Coast of Peru
There is no clear-cut consensus or reliable body of published data in the Andean literature indicating whether llamas were bred and herded on the prehistoric North Coast of Peru or periodically imported from the highlands. Based on four lines of evidence-ethnographic, archaeozoological, physiological, and ethnohistoric-we argue that llamas (and perhaps even alpacas) were successfully bred and maintained on the North Coast from the early Middle Ho…
An Integrated Analysis of Pre-Hispanic Mortuary Practices: A Middle Sicn Case Study
Recent debate has raised serious questions about the viability of the social and ideological reconstruction of prehistoric culture on the basis of mortuary analysis. In recent years bioarchaeology has gained considerable prominence, underscoring the fact that death, burials, and associated mortuary practices are multifaceted phenomena shaped by biological, social, ideological, and taphonomic factors. Few studies attempting social reconstruction t…
Dental relatedness corresponding to mortuary patterning at Huaca Loro, Peru
Within and between tombs at the 1,000‐year‐old site of Huaca Loro on north coastal Peru, interment characteristics vary to an intriguing degree. Following and elaborating upon prior intracemetery studies, biological relatedness among associated burial groupings was assessed using 23 dental characters (assuming familial allele segregation) for 29 individuals. Biological patterning was based on multivariate distance between individuals using all tr…
The Formative Site of Las Haldas, Peru: Architecture, Chronology, and Economy
In 1958 and 1969 the Tokyo University expeditions excavated the Formative site of Las Haldas on the Peruvian coast as part of their multiyear investigation into the developmental processes of Andean civilization. The site, known for a temple complex consisting of 6 terraces and a circular sunken court, provides comparative data for the key highland Formative site of Kotosh. The results of the 1969 excavation refuted the earlier view that the temp…
El Niño flood deposits at Batán Grande, northern Peru
Recent construction of a 10 × 3 irrigation canal across the Batán Grande–Poma archaeological complex of northern Peru provided an opportunity for inspection of soil profiles and detailed sampling along a five km transect bisecting an important concentration of ceremonial structures built during the past 3000+ years. From laboratory analysis of 80 soil samples we conclude no long‐term irrigation agriculture was practiced in this area and it was un…
The Nearest-Neighbor Statistic: Archaeological Application and New Developments
Human behavior has spatial corollaries of great importance to both geographers and archaeologists. Some of these corollaries can be expressed as point maps, and to describe them objectively it has become common-place to employ the nearest-neighbor analysis technique devised by ecologists. But recently it has been shown that 'underestimation' is an inherent flaw of the technique. Initially, therefore, the attention of this paper focuses on elimina…
Machu Picchu: A Citadel of the Incas
Mitochondrial DNA analysis of ancient Peruvian highlanders
Ancient DNA recovered from 57 individuals excavated by Hiram Bingham at the rural communities of Paucarcancha, Patallacta, and Huata near the famed Inca royal estate and ritual site of Machu Picchu was analyzed by polymerase chain reaction, and the results were compared with ancient and modern DNA from various Central Andean areas to test their hypothesized indigenous highland origins. The control and coding regions of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDN…
Economy of a Prehistoric Urban Context: Commodity and Labor Flow at Moche V Pampa Grande, Peru
As a step toward delineation of prehistoric urbanism on the North Coast of Peru, Royal Ontario Museum teams have conducted intensive structural-functional analysis of 'urban context' at the site of Pampa Grande, much of which was last occupied by a Moche V population (ca. A.D. 600-700). Such analysis entails, among other requirements, rigorous temporal control and a systemic conception of archaeological sites, emphasizing interlinkage of various …
Experimental Archaeology: A New Outlook
The potential contributions which imitative experiments can make to archaeology are far greater in scope, complexity, and overall 'value' than is commonly realized. A sketch of some of these potential contributions is given and, in support of the claims advanced, a method of measuring the efficiency of hand operated implements is described and then applied in a comparison of different agricultural practices. The results show that experiments can …
A Quantitative Comparison of Efficiency between a Stone Axe and a Steel Axe
A comparison of the efficiency of a stone axe and steel axe showed that the stone axe takes over six times as long and requires over five times as much energy to accomplish the same work as does the steel axe
Paleoenvironmental catastrophies on the Peruvian coast revealed in lagoon sediment cores from Pachacamac
The Batan Grande-La Leche Archaeological Project: The First Two Seasons
Batan Grande, occupying an area of some 55 sq. km. in the small coastal valley of La Leche in North Peru, is known as a mecca of grave looting that has yielded a considerable quantity of gold funerary artifacts. These destructive clandestine operations have not only prevented serious fieldwork but also effectively obscured the complexity and significance of archaeological remains that include nearly 50 extensive cemeteries and massive adobe const…
Dental and mtDNA Relatedness Among Thousand-Year-Old Remains from Huaca Loro, Peru
Within and between tombs at the site of Huaca Loro (ca. A.D. 1000) on north coastal Peru, biological relatedness based on 23 dental characters follows statistically significant patterns. mtDNA groupings that are based on lineages inferred from inherited derived D-loop bp sequences have also been traced among the individuals. The present study finds a significant, although rather poorly predictive, relation between mtDNA and dental interindividual…
Pottery Style and Society in Ancient Peru: Art as Mirror of History in the Ica Valley, 1350-1570
Assessing the Chronology and Rewrapping of Funerary Bundles at the Prehispanic Religious Center of Pachacamac, Peru
Over 30 funerary bundles were excavated in 2005 from a large chamber tomb at the prehispanic religious center of Pachacamac on the central coast of Peru. The largest and most elaborate bundle was found in the innermost part of the tomb, tightly surrounded by other bundles. We hypothesized that this bundle contained the deceased leader of a social group whose members collectively cared for their ancestor's bundle (for example, by rewrapping it) an…
Some Thoughts on Sican Marked Adobes and Labor Organization
This paper explores the applicability of the segmentary construction-labor tax model of marked adobe distribution proposed for the solid adobe Mochica pyramids in the Moche Valley on the Peruvian North Coast for Middle Sican monumental architecture in Batan Grande farther north. The model is found inadequate to account for the Middle Sican brick-marking pattern characterized by, among other things, a very high frequency of marking and lack of a o…
Peruvian archaeology, 1946-80: An analytic overview
Peruvian archaeology is a rapidly growing, cosmopolitan discipline that has undergone considerable change since the Virú Valley Project in the mid‐1940s. Using a historical perspective; we elucidate evolutionary changes and the broader intellectual and political contexts in which they occurred, placing equal emphasis on the emerging Peruvian tradition and the orientation of archaeologists from abroad who study Peruvian archaeology. The paper conc…
Monumental Adobe Architecture of the late prehispanic Northern North Coast of Peru
Arquitectura monumental de adobe del norte de la Costa Norte del Perú durante el periodo prehispánico tardío. Ciertas técnicas de construcción diferencian las pirámides truncadas de adobe de la parte septentrional de la costa norte (desde el Horizonte Medio hasta el Tardío) de las más antiguas situadas en la parte sur de la Costa Norte. Las marcas de los adobes son también diferentes de las que se encuentran en Moche. El ' dominio salpicado ' es …
A possible case of metastatic carcinoma in a middle Sican burial from Batán Grande, Perú
The skeleton of a young to middle-aged adult excavated at the base of the Pre-Incaic pyramid of Huaca Las Ventanas, northern coast of Peru, shows an osteoplastic formation on the fifth lumbar vertebra compatible with a diagnosis of metastatic carcinoma, possibly from the prostate gland
Naipes: Functions and Significance of Middle Sicán Standardized Sheetmetal Artifacts
The enigmatic naipes, the I-shaped, standardized, arsenical copper sheet artifacts occur in a few to thousands of bundles in elite Sicán tombs on the northern north coast of Peru. Examination of their production process, use contexts, spatio-temporal parameters, and levels of standardization show them to be Middle Sicán (900-1100 CE) in time and cultural origin and locally produced. Naipes seemed to have served two context-dependent purposes as t…
Technology and organization of black pottery production on the north coast of Peru
Not all «black» pottery was produced in the same manner just as their social and symbolic uses and reasons for production varied a good deal. Nor are many examples truly black. The Middle Sicán culture (AD 900-1100) on the north coast of Peru distinguished itself with the perfection and large-scale production of black pottery made of fine paste. Based on our «holistic» study of a Middle Sicán workshop (including experimental firing and detailed c…
The Style, Technology and Organization of Sicán Mining and Metallurgy, Northern Peru: Insights From Holistic Study
This paper explains what Shimada has termed a holistic approach to craft production and illustrates its value by discussing insights gained into the style, technology, and organization of Middle and Late Sicán (ca. AD 900-1,375) mining and copper-arsenic metallurgy. After a brief characterization of the geographical and cultural settings of pertinent research by the Sicán Archaeological Project (1978-present) and the holistic approach, we discuss…
Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture
A Quantitative Comparison of Efficiency between a Stone Axe and a Steel Axe
A comparison of the efficiency of a stone axe and steel axe showed that the stone axe takes over six times as long and requires over five times as much energy to accomplish the same work as does the steel axe
Experimental Archaeology: A New Outlook
The potential contributions which imitative experiments can make to archaeology are far greater in scope, complexity, and overall 'value' than is commonly realized. A sketch of some of these potential contributions is given and, in support of the claims advanced, a method of measuring the efficiency of hand operated implements is described and then applied in a comparison of different agricultural practices. The results show that experiments can …
Geological Analysis of Wall Composition at Grasshopper with Behavioral Implications
During the 1973 field season at the Grasshopper Ruin, a systematic sampling of wall faces was undertaken as the first step toward a site-wide analysis of wall composition. Our aim was to provide insights into the prehistoric behavioral patterns involved in the exploitation of building stones. In addition to the local outcrops of Naco and Supai Formations, all walls of rooms excavated during the 1973 season and some of the walls left exposed from …
Pottery Style and Society in Ancient Peru: Art as Mirror of History in the Ica Valley, 1350-1570
The Art and Archaeology of Pashash
Peru before Pizarro
The Formative Site of Las Haldas, Peru: Architecture, Chronology, and Economy
In 1958 and 1969 the Tokyo University expeditions excavated the Formative site of Las Haldas on the Peruvian coast as part of their multiyear investigation into the developmental processes of Andean civilization. The site, known for a temple complex consisting of 6 terraces and a circular sunken court, provides comparative data for the key highland Formative site of Kotosh. The results of the 1969 excavation refuted the earlier view that the temp…
Economy of a Prehistoric Urban Context: Commodity and Labor Flow at Moche V Pampa Grande, Peru
As a step toward delineation of prehistoric urbanism on the North Coast of Peru, Royal Ontario Museum teams have conducted intensive structural-functional analysis of 'urban context' at the site of Pampa Grande, much of which was last occupied by a Moche V population (ca. A.D. 600-700). Such analysis entails, among other requirements, rigorous temporal control and a systemic conception of archaeological sites, emphasizing interlinkage of various …
The Rural Foundation for Urbanism: Economic and Stylistic Interaction between Rural and Urban Communities in Eighth-Century Peru
The Nearest-Neighbor Statistic: Archaeological Application and New Developments
Human behavior has spatial corollaries of great importance to both geographers and archaeologists. Some of these corollaries can be expressed as point maps, and to describe them objectively it has become common-place to employ the nearest-neighbor analysis technique devised by ecologists. But recently it has been shown that 'underestimation' is an inherent flaw of the technique. Initially, therefore, the attention of this paper focuses on elimina…
News and Short Contributions
The Batan Grande-La Leche Archaeological Project: The First Two Seasons
Batan Grande, occupying an area of some 55 sq. km. in the small coastal valley of La Leche in North Peru, is known as a mecca of grave looting that has yielded a considerable quantity of gold funerary artifacts. These destructive clandestine operations have not only prevented serious fieldwork but also effectively obscured the complexity and significance of archaeological remains that include nearly 50 extensive cemeteries and massive adobe const…
Machu Picchu: A Citadel of the Incas
Peruvian archaeology, 1946-80: An analytic overview
Peruvian archaeology is a rapidly growing, cosmopolitan discipline that has undergone considerable change since the Virú Valley Project in the mid‐1940s. Using a historical perspective; we elucidate evolutionary changes and the broader intellectual and political contexts in which they occurred, placing equal emphasis on the emerging Peruvian tradition and the orientation of archaeologists from abroad who study Peruvian archaeology. The paper conc…
Una perspectiva antropológica sobre la tecnología andina y explicación de la racionalidad del hombre andino: Nota sobre runakunapka wsayninkupag rurasquankunaqa: la tecnología en el mundo andino
Este es el primero de dos volúmenes de una antología sobre la tecnología andina, ambiciosa y ampliamente concebida, que abarca un largo período (prehistoria a la actualidad) , disciplinas (antropología, etnohistoria, geografía y matemáticas) y regiones geográficas de los Andes Centrales (predominantemente el Perú)
Monumental Adobe Architecture of the late prehispanic Northern North Coast of Peru
Arquitectura monumental de adobe del norte de la Costa Norte del Perú durante el periodo prehispánico tardío. Ciertas técnicas de construcción diferencian las pirámides truncadas de adobe de la parte septentrional de la costa norte (desde el Horizonte Medio hasta el Tardío) de las más antiguas situadas en la parte sur de la Costa Norte. Las marcas de los adobes son también diferentes de las que se encuentran en Moche. El ' dominio salpicado ' es …
Prehistoric Llama Breeding and Herding on the North Coast of Peru
There is no clear-cut consensus or reliable body of published data in the Andean literature indicating whether llamas were bred and herded on the prehistoric North Coast of Peru or periodically imported from the highlands. Based on four lines of evidence-ethnographic, archaeozoological, physiological, and ethnohistoric-we argue that llamas (and perhaps even alpacas) were successfully bred and maintained on the North Coast from the early Middle Ho…
El Niño flood deposits at Batán Grande, northern Peru
Recent construction of a 10 × 3 irrigation canal across the Batán Grande–Poma archaeological complex of northern Peru provided an opportunity for inspection of soil profiles and detailed sampling along a five km transect bisecting an important concentration of ceremonial structures built during the past 3000+ years. From laboratory analysis of 80 soil samples we conclude no long‐term irrigation agriculture was practiced in this area and it was un…
Comment on the Functions and Husbandry of Alpaca
This brief note points out two problems in the comment by Topic et al.: the assumption that alpaca were valued only for their wool, and the questionable application of ethnographic and Inkaic husbandry models in culturally and environmentally different settings. Important to resolving these and other problems is improvement of our ability to differentiate alpaca and llama from preserved and sampled osteological and fiber remains.
Some Thoughts on Sican Marked Adobes and Labor Organization
This paper explores the applicability of the segmentary construction-labor tax model of marked adobe distribution proposed for the solid adobe Mochica pyramids in the Moche Valley on the Peruvian North Coast for Middle Sican monumental architecture in Batan Grande farther north. The model is found inadequate to account for the Middle Sican brick-marking pattern characterized by, among other things, a very high frequency of marking and lack of a o…
Obituary: Kazuo Terada, 1928-1987
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Peruvian Prehistory: An Overview of Pre-Inca and Inca Society
Cultural impacts of severe droughts in the prehistoric Andes: Application of a 1,500-year ice core precipitation record
Late in the sixth century, Andean peoples experienced major cultural upheavals, including a notable settlement shift of the classic Mochica culture on the northern Peruvian coast. A recently established annual precipitation record derived from ice cores from the Quelccaya glacier in southern Peru allows assessment of the possible role of climatic disturbances in northern Peru. Both areas are in the same tropical climatic regime. A comparison betw…
A possible case of metastatic carcinoma in a middle Sican burial from Batán Grande, Perú
The skeleton of a young to middle-aged adult excavated at the base of the Pre-Incaic pyramid of Huaca Las Ventanas, northern coast of Peru, shows an osteoplastic formation on the fifth lumbar vertebra compatible with a diagnosis of metastatic carcinoma, possibly from the prostate gland
Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture
Pampa Grande and the Mochica Culture] demonstrates what archaeologists can achieve in terms of reading cultural meaning from the material record. . . . Clear, thoughtful, detailed, and balanced, it is one of the finest treatments of a prehistoric culture that I have ever read. -- Latin American Indian Literatures Journal In Shimada's elegantly illustrated, well argued and documented book, he undertakes the task of exploring the complex causes for…
Geography (33 works) · Archaeology (27 works) · Archaeology and ancient environmental studies (20 works) · History (20 works) · Latin American history and culture (12 works) · History (11 works) · Art (10 works) · Sociology (7 works) · Geology (6 works) · Prehistory (6 works)