Konrad Gajewski
Biographic Data
| ID | 1347876 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Konrad Gajewski |
| GIVEN NAMES | Konrad |
| FAMILY NAME | Gajewski |
| SIGNATURE | GAJEWSKI K |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of Ottawa |
| ORCID | 0000-0003-4677-7432 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 33 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 84 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 33 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1988 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2023 |
| H-INDEX | 4 |
Holocene human-environment interactions across the Northern American prairie-forest ecotone
Quantifying the vulnerability of Arctic water supply lakes through paleolimnological assessment
Anthropogenic stressors to freshwater environments have perpetuated water quality and quantity challenges for communities across Arctic Canada, making drinking water resources a primary concern for northern peoples. To understand the ecological trajectory of lakes used as freshwater supply, we conducted a paleolimnological assessment on two supplemental sources in Igloolik, Nunavut, Arctic Canada. A stratigraphic examination of biological indicat…
Current practices in building and reporting age-depth models
Age-depth models provide essential temporal frameworks in paleoenvironmental science. We use a sample of 80 recently-published age-depth models to comment on current practices in building and reporting radiocarbon-based age-depth models. We address options for model building, sampling strategies, dating densities, and best practices for reporting age-depth models and associated data. Our review reveals incomplete reporting of 14 C ages, model-bui…
A high-resolution paleolimnological study of climate and human impacts on Lac Noir, Québec, over the past 1000 yr
Diatom assemblages in lake sediments of Lac Noir, southwestern Québec, were studied at a resolution of 10 yr to determine principal drivers of primary producers for the past ~1000 yr. Generalized additive modeling revealed strong links between broadscale climate intervals of the late Holocene, forest composition, and diatom flora. During the Medieval Warm Period (~AD 1200) and onset of the Little Ice Age (~AD 1450), increases in Tabellaria floccu…
Human–vegetation interactions during the Holocene in North America
Between the initial colonization of North America and the European settlement period, Indigenous American land use practices shaped North American landscapes and ecosystems, but a critical question is the extent of these impacts on the land, and how these influenced the distributions of the flora and fauna. The present study addresses this question by estimating the spatial correlation between continental-scale records of fossil pollen and archae…
Variations in precipitation in North America during the past 2000 years
We present a 2000-year pollen-based reconstruction of total annual precipitation (ANNP) for North America. Application of Local Indices of Spatial Association (LISA) permitted us to distinguish regional large-scale hydroclimate patterns from local site-specific conditions across North America during this time period. Century-scale filtered pollen-based reconstructions are more spatially coherent than unfiltered reconstructions, allowing for bette…
Multiproxy paleoecological evidence of Holocene climatic changes on the Boothia Peninsula, Canadian Arctic
A study of chironomid remains in the sediments of Lake JR01 on the Boothia Peninsula in the Central Canadian Arctic provides a high-resolution record of mean July air temperatures for the last 6.9 ka. Diatom and pollen studies have previously been published from this core. Peak Holocene temperatures occurred prior to 5.0 ka, a time when overall aquatic and terrestrial biological production was high. Chironomid-inferred summer air temperatures rea…
Radiocarbon dates as estimates of ancient human population size
Human-ecosystem interactions in relation to Holocene environmental change in Port Joli Harbour, southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada
A high-resolution pollen record from Path Lake in Port Joli Harbour, Nova Scotia, Canada, provides a paleo-ecological perspective on Holocene climate and vegetation variability within the context of local archaeological research. Pollen assemblages in the early Holocene reflect a post-glacial forest dominated by Pinus , Tsuga , Betula and Quercus . During this time, a lower frequency of radiocarbon dated cultural material suggests lower human set…
Paleoenvironmental Studies in Southwestern Yukon
The St. Elias Mountain region has occupied an important place in the study of the Quaternary because it presents a relatively accessible non-polar icefield and an array of environments from tundra to boreal forest. Paleoenvironmental studies in southwestern Yukon have documented the broad-scale climatic changes of the past 20 000 years, although few studies exist with well-dated sequences at high temporal resolution. Picea glauca arrived across t…
Analysis of Daily Air Temperatures across a Topographically Complex Alpine Region of Southwestern Yukon, Canada
This study provides an analysis of six years of daily air temperature data collected using 16 HOBO® UA-002-64 Pendant data loggers placed along a 280 km transect in southwestern Yukon and northern British Columbia. Correlation and time series analyses, including Seasonal Decomposition of Time Series by Loess (STL) methods, revealed very high correlations among all data series at daily to annual timescales. The two meteorological stations in the r…
Vegetation dynamics in relation to late Holocene climate variability and disturbance, Outaouais, Québec, Canada
A pollen diagram from Lac Brulé in southwestern Québec (45°43′09′′N, 75°26′32′′W, 270 m) provides a late Holocene history of the vegetation. The presence of varved sediments permitted the development of a high-resolution (10-year), cross-dated chronology with an estimated error of approximately 1%. During the last 1400 years, the forests were dominated by Tsuga, Fagus, Betula, Acer and Pinus. A peak in microcharcoal and evidence of post-fire succ…
What we learned from the Dust Bowl
This article provides a review and synthesis of scholarly knowledge of Depression-era droughts on the North American Great Plains, a time and place known colloquially as the Dust Bowl era or the Dirty Thirties. Recent events, including the 2008 financial crisis, severe droughts in the US corn belt, and the release of a popular documentary film, have spawned a resurgence in public interest in the Dust Bowl. Events of the Dust Bowl era have also pr…
Effects of the White River Ash Event on Aquatic Environments, Southwest Yukon, Canada
Chironomid and sedimentary records from four lakes in the southwest Yukon reveal that the effects of the White River Ash event on aquatic environments varied with distance from the source vent, with sites closer to the source experiencing a greater impact. Upper Fly and Jenny Lakes, located ~200 km away from the volcano, had the thinnest ash layers. The Upper Fly site showed no response to the fallout of the ash, but at Jenny Lake the ash event a…
Temperatures of the past 2000 years inferred from lake sediments, southwest Yukon Territory, Canada
Lake sediments from four sites in the southwest Yukon Territory, Canada, provided paleotemperature records for the past 2000 yr. An alpine and a forest site from the southeastern portion of the study area, near Kluane Lake, and another alpine-forest pair of lakes from the Donjek River area located to the northwest yielded chironomid records that were used to provide quantitative estimates of mean July air temperature. Prior to AD 800, the southwe…
On the glacial and postglacial history of the western Canadian Arctic Islands
On the glacial and postglacial history of the western Canadian Arctic Islands
Multi-proxy record of postglacial environmental change, south-central Melville Island, Northwest Territories, Canada
A sediment core from Lake BC01 (75"10.945?N, 111"55.181?W, 225"m asl) on south-central Melville Island, NWT, Canada, provides the first continuous postglacial environmental record for the region. Fossil pollen results indicate that the postglacial landscape was dominated by Poaceae and Salix , typical of a High Arctic plant community, whereas the Arctic herb Oxyria underwent a gradual increase during the late Holocene. Pollen-based climate recons…
Distinguishing prehistoric human influence on late-Holocene forests in southern Ontario, Canada
The influence of Native Americans on late-Holocene forests of North America remains a contentious issue, as it is unclear whether vegetation transitions inferred from pollen records are a product of prehistoric human disturbance. In southern Ontario, the adoption of maize agriculture coincides with neoglacial cooling, so distinguishing the relative roles of prehistoric people and climatic change in shaping forest composition requires that pollen …
Recent Warming Reverses Long-Term Arctic Cooling
Climate Reversal The climate and environment of the Arctic have changed drastically over the short course of modern observation. Kaufman et al. (p. 1236 ) synthesized 2000 years of proxy data from lakes above 60° N latitude with complementary ice core and tree ring records, to create a paleoclimate reconstruction for the Arctic with a 10-year resolution. A gradual cooling trend at the start of the record had reversed by the beginning of the 20th …
Biogeography of Freshwater Ostracodes in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Seven species of freshwater ostracodes were identified from the sediments of 43 lakes on eight islands across the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. No ostracodes were encountered in the sediments of almost half of the lakes, and most were found at sites that had higher alkalinity. Several taxa endemic to Arctic regions are found across the Arctic Archipelago, including Candona rectangulata Alm, Limnocythere liporeticulata Delorme, and Tonnacypris glac…
Prehistoric demography of North America inferred from radiocarbon data
Post-Glacial climatic change on Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada
A high temporal resolution pollen diagram from a lake in the mid-Arctic region of the Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada, documents the history of the regional vegetation and climate for the past 7200 yr. Major tundra pollen taxa in the core include Cyperaceae and Salix , with Cyperaceae comprising over 50% of the pollen in the early and late Holocene. Tree pollen, transported from far to the south, comprised a large percentage of the pollen sum,…
A palaeolimnological record of diatom-community dynamics and late-Holocene climatic changes from Prescott Island, Nunavut, central Canadian Arctic
Palaeolimnological analyses from Lake PW03, a small, dilute lake on crystalline bedrock on Prescott Island, Nunavut, Canada (73°07′ N, 96°41′ W, 243 m a.s.l.), provide a sensitive record of the impacts of Holocene climatic change on diatom communities. A high-resolution sequence from 3500 cal. BP to present indicates that a significant change in diatom assemblages takes place at 2300 cal. BP, when alkaliphilous fragilarioids and planktonic taxa a…
Dendrochronological Potential of Salix alaxensis from the Kuujjua River Area, Western Canadian Arctic
This study presents the first annually-resolved chronology using Salix alaxensis (Anderss.) Cov from Victoria Island, Northwest Territories, Canada, an area well north of treeline. Forty-one samples were collected and examined for subsequent analysis. However, crossdating was difficult because of locally absent or missing rings and the narrowness of the rings, and ultimately thirteen stems were crossdated and used to evaluate their dendroclimatol…
Tree-ring Analysis of Five Picea Glauca- Dominated Sites from the Interior Boreal Forest in the Shakwak Trench, Yukon Territory, Canada
Five tree-ring chronologies were developed from low-elevation stands of white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss) situated in the interior boreal forest of the Shakwak Trench, Yukon Territory. The objective of this study was to investigate the climate impacts on tree growth using trees from within plots located in an interior boreal forest. The five chronologies depict similar trends in tree-ring width, suggesting a significant climatic influence…
Prehistoric demography of North America inferred from radiocarbon data
Radiocarbon dates as estimates of ancient human population size
What we learned from the Dust Bowl
This article provides a review and synthesis of scholarly knowledge of Depression-era droughts on the North American Great Plains, a time and place known colloquially as the Dust Bowl era or the Dirty Thirties. Recent events, including the 2008 financial crisis, severe droughts in the US corn belt, and the release of a popular documentary film, have spawned a resurgence in public interest in the Dust Bowl. Events of the Dust Bowl era have also pr…
Distinguishing prehistoric human influence on late-Holocene forests in southern Ontario, Canada
The influence of Native Americans on late-Holocene forests of North America remains a contentious issue, as it is unclear whether vegetation transitions inferred from pollen records are a product of prehistoric human disturbance. In southern Ontario, the adoption of maize agriculture coincides with neoglacial cooling, so distinguishing the relative roles of prehistoric people and climatic change in shaping forest composition requires that pollen …
Human–vegetation interactions during the Holocene in North America
Between the initial colonization of North America and the European settlement period, Indigenous American land use practices shaped North American landscapes and ecosystems, but a critical question is the extent of these impacts on the land, and how these influenced the distributions of the flora and fauna. The present study addresses this question by estimating the spatial correlation between continental-scale records of fossil pollen and archae…
Variations in precipitation in North America during the past 2000 years
We present a 2000-year pollen-based reconstruction of total annual precipitation (ANNP) for North America. Application of Local Indices of Spatial Association (LISA) permitted us to distinguish regional large-scale hydroclimate patterns from local site-specific conditions across North America during this time period. Century-scale filtered pollen-based reconstructions are more spatially coherent than unfiltered reconstructions, allowing for bette…
Vegetation dynamics in relation to late Holocene climate variability and disturbance, Outaouais, Québec, Canada
A pollen diagram from Lac Brulé in southwestern Québec (45°43′09′′N, 75°26′32′′W, 270 m) provides a late Holocene history of the vegetation. The presence of varved sediments permitted the development of a high-resolution (10-year), cross-dated chronology with an estimated error of approximately 1%. During the last 1400 years, the forests were dominated by Tsuga, Fagus, Betula, Acer and Pinus. A peak in microcharcoal and evidence of post-fire succ…
A palaeolimnological record of diatom-community dynamics and late-Holocene climatic changes from Prescott Island, Nunavut, central Canadian Arctic
Palaeolimnological analyses from Lake PW03, a small, dilute lake on crystalline bedrock on Prescott Island, Nunavut, Canada (73°07′ N, 96°41′ W, 243 m a.s.l.), provide a sensitive record of the impacts of Holocene climatic change on diatom communities. A high-resolution sequence from 3500 cal. BP to present indicates that a significant change in diatom assemblages takes place at 2300 cal. BP, when alkaliphilous fragilarioids and planktonic taxa a…
A diatom-based Holocene palaeoenvironmental record from a mid-arctic lake on Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada
A 485 cm sediment core from a lake unoffcially called JR01, Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada, yielded a high-resolution diatom record documenting environmental change in the mid-arctic. Five radiocarbon dates provided the chronology. Changes in diatom composition and sediment character istics indicated distinct shifts in the Holocene climate. A more diverse and productive diatom flora implies warmer temperatures in the middle Holocene. A subseq…
Holocene human-environment interactions across the Northern American prairie-forest ecotone
Late Holocene Climate Changes in Eastern North America Estimated from Pollen Data
Well-dated pollen profiles from six sites from Maine to Minnesota record vegetation changes indicative of summer temperature and annual precipitation variations over the past 2000 yr. Laminations in the sediment provide accurate time control. Multiple regression techniques were used to calculate calibration functions from a spatial network of modern pollen and climate data. When applied to the six pollen diagrams, these calibration functions yiel…
Modern and Holocene Pollen Assemblages from Some Small Arctic Lakes on Somerset Island, NWT, Canada
Modern pollen samples from 15 lakes along a north-south transect on western Somerset Island, NWT, Canada, show a decrease in pollen concentrations from the high arctic to the mid-arctic zone, but there are few differences in the pollen percentages between these sites. Long-distance transport accounts for up to 50% of the pollen in these lake sediments. Cores from two lakes show few changes in the percentages of important pollen types, except for …
Arctic Environmental Change of the Last Four Centuries
A compilation of paleoclimate records from lake sediments, trees, glaciers, and marine sediments provides a view of circum-Arctic environmental variability over the last 400 years. From 1840 to the mid-20th century, the Arctic warmed to the highest temperatures in four centuries. This warming ended the Little Ice Age in the Arctic and has caused retreats of glaciers, melting of permafrost and sea ice, and alteration of terrestrial and lake ecosys…
Comparison of marine and terrestrial Holocene climatic reconstructions from northeastern North America
Quantitative climate reconstructions based on marine dinocysts and terrestrial pollen sequences are consistent through the Holocene in northeastern North America. Principal components analysis (PCA) indicates a large-scale climate signal in the dinocysts and pollen. The combined and separate analyses of marine and nearby terrestrial pollen sequences from Hudson Bay, Labrador and the St Lawrence estuary differentiate tun dra, boreal forest and dec…
A Holocene Ice-Core Pollen Record from Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada
A Holocene record of pollen deposition was obtained from an ice core drilled through the Agassiz Ice Cap. The pollen records long-range atmospheric transport to the ice cap. Pollen concentrations were highest in the early Holocene (∼15 grains/L), decreased in the mid-Holocene (∼6 grains/L), and increased in the late Holocene (∼9 grains/L). In the early Holocene, the higher concentration of tree pollen at a time when large parts of Canada were sti…
Late Quaternary Vegetation History of Sulphur Lake, Southwest Yukon Territory, Canada
Paleoecological studies based on the analysis of pollen in lake sediments offer the potential for high resolution and well-dated independent records of past vegetation and climate. A 5 m sediment core was raised from the deepest section of Sulphur Lake, located in the southwest Yukon (60.95°N, 137.95°W; 847 m a.s.l.). The pollen spectra indicate that before 11250 yr BP, the vegetation was a herbaceous tundra marked by the presence of Artemisia. H…
Holocene thermal maximum in the western Arctic (0–180°W)
A diatom-based Holocene palaeoenvironmental record from a mid-arctic lake on Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada
A 485 cm sediment core from a lake unoffcially called JR01, Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada, yielded a high-resolution diatom record documenting environmental change in the mid-arctic. Five radiocarbon dates provided the chronology. Changes in diatom composition and sediment character istics indicated distinct shifts in the Holocene climate. A more diverse and productive diatom flora implies warmer temperatures in the middle Holocene. A subseq…
Tree-ring Analysis of Five Picea Glauca- Dominated Sites from the Interior Boreal Forest in the Shakwak Trench, Yukon Territory, Canada
Five tree-ring chronologies were developed from low-elevation stands of white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss) situated in the interior boreal forest of the Shakwak Trench, Yukon Territory. The objective of this study was to investigate the climate impacts on tree growth using trees from within plots located in an interior boreal forest. The five chronologies depict similar trends in tree-ring width, suggesting a significant climatic influence…
Dendrochronological Potential of Salix alaxensis from the Kuujjua River Area, Western Canadian Arctic
This study presents the first annually-resolved chronology using Salix alaxensis (Anderss.) Cov from Victoria Island, Northwest Territories, Canada, an area well north of treeline. Forty-one samples were collected and examined for subsequent analysis. However, crossdating was difficult because of locally absent or missing rings and the narrowness of the rings, and ultimately thirteen stems were crossdated and used to evaluate their dendroclimatol…
Post-Glacial climatic change on Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada
A high temporal resolution pollen diagram from a lake in the mid-Arctic region of the Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut, Canada, documents the history of the regional vegetation and climate for the past 7200 yr. Major tundra pollen taxa in the core include Cyperaceae and Salix , with Cyperaceae comprising over 50% of the pollen in the early and late Holocene. Tree pollen, transported from far to the south, comprised a large percentage of the pollen sum,…
A palaeolimnological record of diatom-community dynamics and late-Holocene climatic changes from Prescott Island, Nunavut, central Canadian Arctic
Palaeolimnological analyses from Lake PW03, a small, dilute lake on crystalline bedrock on Prescott Island, Nunavut, Canada (73°07′ N, 96°41′ W, 243 m a.s.l.), provide a sensitive record of the impacts of Holocene climatic change on diatom communities. A high-resolution sequence from 3500 cal. BP to present indicates that a significant change in diatom assemblages takes place at 2300 cal. BP, when alkaliphilous fragilarioids and planktonic taxa a…
Recent Warming Reverses Long-Term Arctic Cooling
Climate Reversal The climate and environment of the Arctic have changed drastically over the short course of modern observation. Kaufman et al. (p. 1236 ) synthesized 2000 years of proxy data from lakes above 60° N latitude with complementary ice core and tree ring records, to create a paleoclimate reconstruction for the Arctic with a 10-year resolution. A gradual cooling trend at the start of the record had reversed by the beginning of the 20th …
Biogeography of Freshwater Ostracodes in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Seven species of freshwater ostracodes were identified from the sediments of 43 lakes on eight islands across the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. No ostracodes were encountered in the sediments of almost half of the lakes, and most were found at sites that had higher alkalinity. Several taxa endemic to Arctic regions are found across the Arctic Archipelago, including Candona rectangulata Alm, Limnocythere liporeticulata Delorme, and Tonnacypris glac…
Prehistoric demography of North America inferred from radiocarbon data
Multi-proxy record of postglacial environmental change, south-central Melville Island, Northwest Territories, Canada
A sediment core from Lake BC01 (75"10.945?N, 111"55.181?W, 225"m asl) on south-central Melville Island, NWT, Canada, provides the first continuous postglacial environmental record for the region. Fossil pollen results indicate that the postglacial landscape was dominated by Poaceae and Salix , typical of a High Arctic plant community, whereas the Arctic herb Oxyria underwent a gradual increase during the late Holocene. Pollen-based climate recons…
Distinguishing prehistoric human influence on late-Holocene forests in southern Ontario, Canada
The influence of Native Americans on late-Holocene forests of North America remains a contentious issue, as it is unclear whether vegetation transitions inferred from pollen records are a product of prehistoric human disturbance. In southern Ontario, the adoption of maize agriculture coincides with neoglacial cooling, so distinguishing the relative roles of prehistoric people and climatic change in shaping forest composition requires that pollen …
On the glacial and postglacial history of the western Canadian Arctic Islands
On the glacial and postglacial history of the western Canadian Arctic Islands
Temperatures of the past 2000 years inferred from lake sediments, southwest Yukon Territory, Canada
Lake sediments from four sites in the southwest Yukon Territory, Canada, provided paleotemperature records for the past 2000 yr. An alpine and a forest site from the southeastern portion of the study area, near Kluane Lake, and another alpine-forest pair of lakes from the Donjek River area located to the northwest yielded chironomid records that were used to provide quantitative estimates of mean July air temperature. Prior to AD 800, the southwe…
Effects of the White River Ash Event on Aquatic Environments, Southwest Yukon, Canada
Chironomid and sedimentary records from four lakes in the southwest Yukon reveal that the effects of the White River Ash event on aquatic environments varied with distance from the source vent, with sites closer to the source experiencing a greater impact. Upper Fly and Jenny Lakes, located ~200 km away from the volcano, had the thinnest ash layers. The Upper Fly site showed no response to the fallout of the ash, but at Jenny Lake the ash event a…
Human-ecosystem interactions in relation to Holocene environmental change in Port Joli Harbour, southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada
A high-resolution pollen record from Path Lake in Port Joli Harbour, Nova Scotia, Canada, provides a paleo-ecological perspective on Holocene climate and vegetation variability within the context of local archaeological research. Pollen assemblages in the early Holocene reflect a post-glacial forest dominated by Pinus , Tsuga , Betula and Quercus . During this time, a lower frequency of radiocarbon dated cultural material suggests lower human set…
Paleoenvironmental Studies in Southwestern Yukon
The St. Elias Mountain region has occupied an important place in the study of the Quaternary because it presents a relatively accessible non-polar icefield and an array of environments from tundra to boreal forest. Paleoenvironmental studies in southwestern Yukon have documented the broad-scale climatic changes of the past 20 000 years, although few studies exist with well-dated sequences at high temporal resolution. Picea glauca arrived across t…
Analysis of Daily Air Temperatures across a Topographically Complex Alpine Region of Southwestern Yukon, Canada
This study provides an analysis of six years of daily air temperature data collected using 16 HOBO® UA-002-64 Pendant data loggers placed along a 280 km transect in southwestern Yukon and northern British Columbia. Correlation and time series analyses, including Seasonal Decomposition of Time Series by Loess (STL) methods, revealed very high correlations among all data series at daily to annual timescales. The two meteorological stations in the r…
Vegetation dynamics in relation to late Holocene climate variability and disturbance, Outaouais, Québec, Canada
A pollen diagram from Lac Brulé in southwestern Québec (45°43′09′′N, 75°26′32′′W, 270 m) provides a late Holocene history of the vegetation. The presence of varved sediments permitted the development of a high-resolution (10-year), cross-dated chronology with an estimated error of approximately 1%. During the last 1400 years, the forests were dominated by Tsuga, Fagus, Betula, Acer and Pinus. A peak in microcharcoal and evidence of post-fire succ…
What we learned from the Dust Bowl
This article provides a review and synthesis of scholarly knowledge of Depression-era droughts on the North American Great Plains, a time and place known colloquially as the Dust Bowl era or the Dirty Thirties. Recent events, including the 2008 financial crisis, severe droughts in the US corn belt, and the release of a popular documentary film, have spawned a resurgence in public interest in the Dust Bowl. Events of the Dust Bowl era have also pr…
Geography (31 works) · Physical geography (28 works) · Geology and Paleoclimatology Research (27 works) · Climate change (20 works) · Geology (20 works) · Holocene (20 works) · Oceanography (19 works) · Arctic (16 works) · Ecology (15 works) · Biology (14 works)