Mark Schafer
Biographic Data
| ID | 198624 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Mark Schafer |
| GIVEN NAMES | Mark |
| FAMILY NAME | Schafer |
| SIGNATURE | SCHAFER M |
| AFFILIATIONS | Louisiana State University |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-6296-8832 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 46 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 406 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 43 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 3 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1990 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 10 |
Signals from the School
Although family involvement is widely recognized as a cornerstone of student success, relatively little research has disentangled how different types of school-to-family communication shape distinct forms of parental engagement. Drawing on nationally representative data from the 2016 Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey (PFI-NHES), this study examines whether five forms of school communication—positive contacts, negative contacts, in…
Family strategies
Temporary migration to international destinations has many implications for the family members left behind. This paper discusses family economic theoretical perspectives and the family strategies that are adopted in Chitwan, Nepal. The family strategies include single united, split-single generation, multigenerational, and split-multigenerational households that are linked to the presence or absence of fathers and grandfathers. We examined how fa…
Tough Ties and Rough Networks
Reciprocity and negativity in social relationships are fundamental topics of social research rarely examined in sub‐Saharan Africa. Since the number and quality of relationships is associated with individual outcomes, these ties are particularly important in impoverished areas. We conducted a multi‐method study of the conditions associated with problematic networks and difficult people, including face‐to‐face surveys in Agbogbloshie (Accra, Ghana…
Operational Code Analysis
Operational Code Analysis (OCA) has a long and illustrious place in the history of foreign policy analysis. Most of the early empirical work on operational codes was qualitative, providing thick descriptions of an actor&s;s beliefs, fears, and motivations. More recently, a quantitative approach has been developed and has become the standard modus operandi in the contemporary literature. This chapter provides a brief history of OCA, an explanation…
Psychological Characteristics of Leaders (PsyCL)
This article introduces the Psychological Characteristics of Leaders (PsyCL) data set. Foreign policy decisions are made by humans, and human psychology affects those decisions. While structural factors likely shape policy challenges and opportunities, excluding humans from our models is certain to miss important factors. Psychology has been excluded in the past in part because of the lack of data; PsyCL begins to address this problem. We discuss…
Operational Code Analysis and Foreign Policy Roles
In this book, senior scholars and a new generation of analysts present different applications of recent advances linking beliefs and decision-making, in the area of foreign policy analysis with strategic interactions in world politics. Divided into five parts, Part 1 identifies how the beliefs in the cognitive operational codes of individual leaders explain the political decisions of states. In Part 2, five chapters illustrate progress in compari…
Peer effects of friend and extracurricular activity networks on students' academic performance
Has the Internet Reduced Friendship? Scientific Relationships in Ghana, Kenya, and India, 1994-2010
Has the Internet changed the pattern of social relations? More specifically, have social relations undergone any systematic change during the recent widespread diffusion of new communications technology? This question is addressed using a unique longitudinal survey that bookends the entire period of Internet diffusion in two African nations and one Indian state. We analyze data on nine professional linkages reported by a population of agricultura…
Family Economy, Rural School Choice, and Flexischooling Children with Disabilities
Most homeschooled students would be more accurately described as 'flexischooled,' partly homeschooled and partly enrolled in school. The popularity of these two alternatives to public or private school enrollment has increased over the past several decades to the extent that, by 2012 over 2 million students, 4 percent of the population, were either flexischooled or homeschooled in the United States. To understand why parents have pursued these op…
Creole
In this paper, we critically examine the polysemous term, creole, used at different times and various geographical areas to describe diverse identities, languages, peoples, ethnicities, racial heritages, and cultural artefacts. Our objective is twofold: (1) to describe the historically contested nature of the term and its connection to broader trends in defining race in the United States and (2) to suggest that a deeper understanding of racially …
Access to ICT and Research Output of Agriculture Researchers in Kenya
Agricultural researchers work at universities and research institutes. This paper examines how institutional context has affected Kenyan agricultural scientists’ professional lives along several dimensions: Access and use of emerging ICT technologies, professional activities, and scholarly output. It draws upon a unique longitudinal data set in which scientists were interviewed in 2001, 2005, and 2010. The data allow us to follow changes in techn…
Resilience in Louisiana Fema Parks
Despite living in difficult and socially disorganized conditions, some individuals displaced by disasters and living in FEMA parks can be remarkably resilient to depression. We conceptualize resilience as emerging from a combination of situational advantages that accrue for some residents but not for others. We assess whether situational advantages lead to resilience, either in isolation or in combination with one another, in two parts. First, we…
At-a-Distance Analysis
This chapter reviews the state of the art in at-a-distance analysis. This methodology originated in attempts by psychologists and students of policy-making and international relations to understand and predict a national or government’s policy choices by studying the verbal behaviour of key government leaders. It has since widened into an array of methods that have also found use in areas such as candidate assessment. Several key methods are pres…
Rethinking Foreign Policy Analysis
Stephen G. Walker, Akan Malici, and Mark Schafer present a definitive, social-psychological approach to integrating theories of foreign policy analysis and international relations—addressing the agent-centered, micro-political study of decisions by leaders and the structure-oriented, macro-political study of state interactions as a complex adaptive system. The links between the internal world of beliefs and the external world of events provide th…
Dislocation and Depression
Hurricane Katrina has been the worst natural disaster in the history of the United States, rendering 205,000 houses uninhabitable. Hurricane Rita also dislocated many residents. Previous disaster research has shown that the psychological consequences for the affected population often manifested themselves 1 to 2 years later. This article presents results from a 2007 survey of hurricane evacuees living in Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)…
Social costs of displacement in Louisiana after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
Displacement Dynamics in Southern Louisiana After Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
Timothy Cook
It is with indescribable sorrow that we write with news of the death of our dear friend and colleague, Timothy Cook. Tim passed away from complications associated with brain cancer on August 5, 2006, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He was only 51. Tim held the Kevin P. Reilly, Sr. Chair in Political Communication at Louisiana State University
Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson as Cultural Icons of U.S. Foreign Policy
The conventional account of American diplomacy in the modern era is marked by a cultural tension between realist and idealist themes symbolized by the statecraft of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. However, a revisionist account has emerged to challenge and even reverse the conventional account of Roosevelt and Wilson. This poses an intriguing empirical puzzle that is essentially psychological, as it pertains to the belief systems of these …
Operational Code Analysis at a Distance
Snyder, Bruck, and Sapin (1962) argued many years ago that those of us interested in understanding foreign policy decisions needed to get inside the “black box” of the decision-making process. Doing so, they pointed out, required a focus on the agents involved in the process. This agent-centered approach differed significantly from the broader, structural approaches that had marked the study of global politics prior to their revolutionary work. A…
Belief Systems as Causal Mechanisms in World Politics
As the quotation from Smith (1988) indicates, research programs in foreign policy analysis have always maintained that who decides matters. Since the end of the cold war, more scholars and policy makers have come to appreciate the need to study belief systems as causal mechanisms in the post-cold war world. Following their failure to anticipate and explain the end of the conflict between the superpowers, rational choice and international relation…
Beliefs and Leadership in World Politics
Operational Codes and the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland
Journal Article Operational Codes and the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland: A Test of the Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis Get access Mark Schafer, Mark Schafer Louisiana State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Sam Robison, Sam Robison Louisiana State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Bradley Aldrich Bradley Aldrich Louisiana State University Search …
Democratic Leaders and the Democratic Peace
Do the beliefs of leaders make a significant difference in determining if democracies are peaceful and explaining why democracies (almost) never fight one another? Our comparisons of Prime Minister Tony Blair and President Bill Clinton reveal that both leaders view democracies as more friendly than nondemocracies, and they have significantly less cooperative beliefs toward the latter than toward the former, a difference that extends to the behavi…
Educational Model and Expansion of Enrollments in Sub-Saharan Africa
This article relies on the concept of educational model to explain why African countries that were colonized by Britain and France experienced significantly different forms of educational expansion after independence. The authors argue that both models represented legitimate variants of world institutional processes that drove the expansion of mass education in the sub-Saharan region. Each model defined the nature of the relationship between the …
Systematic Procedures for Operational Code Analysis
In this article we introduce a new scoring system for doing operational code analysis and test its reliability and validity by measuring and modeling President Jimmy Carter's operational code. Using speeches from the public record we construct indices for the elements of the operational code construct. Based upon the valences and scaled intensities of verbs uttered in the speeches, President Jimmy Carter's views of the political universe and appr…
Issues in Assessing Psychological Characteristics at a Distance
This article provides an overview of the issues, methods, and constructs presented in the papers for the symposium Issues in Assessing Psychological Characteristics at a Distance. These papers share a substantive focus on the psychological characteristics of U.S. presidents and a common commitment to the use of ‘at‐a‐distance’ assessment techniques. In this context, at‐a distance measures raise several substantive and methodological issues, inclu…
Democratic Leaders and the Democratic Peace
Do the beliefs of leaders make a significant difference in determining if democracies are peaceful and explaining why democracies (almost) never fight one another? Our comparisons of Prime Minister Tony Blair and President Bill Clinton reveal that both leaders view democracies as more friendly than nondemocracies, and they have significantly less cooperative beliefs toward the latter than toward the former, a difference that extends to the behavi…
Presidential Operational Codes and Foreign Policy Conflicts in the Post-Cold War World
The authors investigate the linkage between presidential operational codes and the management of foreign policy conflicts during the period of strategic adjustment in American foreign policy following the cold war. Beliefs expressed in public speeches by Presidents George Bush and Bill Clinton are coded for self and other attributions that represent different forms of the exercise of political power. Bush's beliefs reveal a less cooperative, rela…
International Nongovernmental Organizations and Third World Education in 1990
International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) are at the core of an evolving and increasingly coherent world culture that promotes universally recognized norms of development and education in the Third World. INGOs work directly with local communities to build new schools, provide educational materials, encourage enrollments. INGOs also propagate world educational standards and goals. This article presents the first quantitative, cross-nati…
Urbanization and Development
Half of the world's population will live in cities by the early twenty-first century, and, of the ten most populated cities, nine will be in the developing world. Unfortunately, this is occurring at a time when national governments are increasingly unable to provide basic public services to growing populations. International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) have dramatically increased their efforts in urban areas and in economic and social d…
Images and Policy Preferences
This article reports the results of an experiment that tests the independent and interactive effects of two dimensions of international images: perceived historial relationship and cultural differences. Priming techniques are used to manipulate images in subjects who are involved in a simulated international conflict. Dependent variables include attitudes and behaviors, the latter in the form of policy preferences arranged on a cooperative‐confli…
Bill Clinton's Operational Code
This paper considers Bill Clinton's operational code as reflected in prepared speeches and spontaneous remarks. Differences between the two types of verbal material, their respective differences over time, and their respective variation after key intervening political events were subjected to analysis of variance as well as descriptive analyses. The results suggest that measurements based on spontaneous comments are preferable, particularly in pr…
The Process-Outcome Connection in Foreign Policy Decision Making
This article investigates whether certain factors pertaining to the process of foreign policy decision making have a measurable, qualitative effect on foreign policy outcomes. The research is grounded in the groupthink literature but incorporates different dimensions of similar underlying notions from other international relations areas as well. Three different types of process factors are investigated: situational factors, such as stress and tim…
Social costs of displacement in Louisiana after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
Displacement Dynamics in Southern Louisiana After Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
Cooperative and Conflictual Policy Preferences
What is the connection between identity and conflict behavior? This article begins by exploring some of the theoretical currents in this area, notably social identity theory, Erikson's work on identity development, Burton's ontological needs, and image theory. The theories differ somewhat in their expectations of the effect of identity development. Two studies were conducted to investigate these differences. The first, a priming experiment, parti…
Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson as Cultural Icons of U.S. Foreign Policy
The conventional account of American diplomacy in the modern era is marked by a cultural tension between realist and idealist themes symbolized by the statecraft of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. However, a revisionist account has emerged to challenge and even reverse the conventional account of Roosevelt and Wilson. This poses an intriguing empirical puzzle that is essentially psychological, as it pertains to the belief systems of these …
The Political Universe of Lyndon B. Johnson and His Advisors
This study uses the Verbs in Context System (VICS) to analyze and compare the operational codes of President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors during the Vietnam conflict. The initial focus is on changes in Johnson's general operational code as revealed in public statements during the period leading to the decisions to bomb North Vietnam and to intervene with ground forces in South Vietnam. Johnson's public operational codes for the domestic, forei…
Antecedents of Groupthink
This article reports results of a quantitative analysis of I. L. Janis's (1982) original specification of the groupthink model. The study builds on the earlier work on 19 cold war crises conducted by Herek, Janis, and Huth (1987), who found that information-processing errors in group decision making were directly related to unfavorable outcomes. The present research looks further back in Janis's casual story to investigate the factors that give r…
Cooperation in an Objective Conflict of Interest? Testing Two Psychological Approaches
This article investigates psychological factors that might cause actors to pursue more cooperative policies in the midst of an international conflict. Two theoretical areas are considered: the effect of intergroup contact and the effect of individual-difference variables on cooperative policy preferences Experimental methodology involving small-group processes is used in conjunction with an international conflict simulation The study finds that i…
Psychological Characteristics of Leaders (PsyCL)
This article introduces the Psychological Characteristics of Leaders (PsyCL) data set. Foreign policy decisions are made by humans, and human psychology affects those decisions. While structural factors likely shape policy challenges and opportunities, excluding humans from our models is certain to miss important factors. Psychology has been excluded in the past in part because of the lack of data; PsyCL begins to address this problem. We discuss…
Operational Codes and the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland
Journal Article Operational Codes and the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland: A Test of the Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis Get access Mark Schafer, Mark Schafer Louisiana State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Sam Robison, Sam Robison Louisiana State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Bradley Aldrich Bradley Aldrich Louisiana State University Search …
Educational Model and Expansion of Enrollments in Sub-Saharan Africa
This article relies on the concept of educational model to explain why African countries that were colonized by Britain and France experienced significantly different forms of educational expansion after independence. The authors argue that both models represented legitimate variants of world institutional processes that drove the expansion of mass education in the sub-Saharan region. Each model defined the nature of the relationship between the …
Peer effects of friend and extracurricular activity networks on students' academic performance
Family School Enrollment in Rural Malawi and Kenya
This study examines family school enrollment practices under five distinct national/regional contexts in two sub-Saharan African nations, Malawi and Kenya. This paper presents a model of family enrollment practices rooted in family economy theory and dependent upon local, regional, and national contexts of schooling. The model incorporates social capital arguments that family decision-making strategies may be influenced by members' networks of so…
Household Change and Rural School Enrollment in Malawi and Kenya
This study examines school enrollment in two sub-Saharan African nations, Malawi and Kenya. The article advances a refined family economy theoretical framework for understanding variations in school enrollment. It recasts family economy frameworks to consider not only how the household institution mediates a broad social change, but also how the family institution itself may be influenced by a macroinstitutional change. The findings suggest that …
Explaining groupthink
Do psychological characteristics of leaders affect groupthink? This paper investigates the extent to which presidents' Conceptual Complexity, Belief in Ability to Control Events, and Need for Affiliation affect foreign policy decision making structures and processes in 19 Cold War crises. Independent variables are derived from personality-at-a-distance techniques using presidential press conferences. Comparative data on the presidential character…
Dislocation and Depression
Hurricane Katrina has been the worst natural disaster in the history of the United States, rendering 205,000 houses uninhabitable. Hurricane Rita also dislocated many residents. Previous disaster research has shown that the psychological consequences for the affected population often manifested themselves 1 to 2 years later. This article presents results from a 2007 survey of hurricane evacuees living in Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)…
Family strategies
Temporary migration to international destinations has many implications for the family members left behind. This paper discusses family economic theoretical perspectives and the family strategies that are adopted in Chitwan, Nepal. The family strategies include single united, split-single generation, multigenerational, and split-multigenerational households that are linked to the presence or absence of fathers and grandfathers. We examined how fa…
Cold Tales
Altering conflict attitudes through prenegotiation contact
This experiment investigates the hypothesis that prenegotiation contact improves conflict attitudes between adversaries. Many different literatures theoretically support variations on this theme, but there has been very little empirical work which directly tests the idea. Using experimental methodology and an international conflict simulation to collect data, the findings from this study demonstrate that there is a strong recasting effect associa…
Antecedents of Groupthink
This article reports results of a quantitative analysis of I. L. Janis's (1982) original specification of the groupthink model. The study builds on the earlier work on 19 cold war crises conducted by Herek, Janis, and Huth (1987), who found that information-processing errors in group decision making were directly related to unfavorable outcomes. The present research looks further back in Janis's casual story to investigate the factors that give r…
Cooperation in an Objective Conflict of Interest? Testing Two Psychological Approaches
This article investigates psychological factors that might cause actors to pursue more cooperative policies in the midst of an international conflict. Two theoretical areas are considered: the effect of intergroup contact and the effect of individual-difference variables on cooperative policy preferences Experimental methodology involving small-group processes is used in conjunction with an international conflict simulation The study finds that i…
Images and Policy Preferences
This article reports the results of an experiment that tests the independent and interactive effects of two dimensions of international images: perceived historial relationship and cultural differences. Priming techniques are used to manipulate images in subjects who are involved in a simulated international conflict. Dependent variables include attitudes and behaviors, the latter in the form of policy preferences arranged on a cooperative‐confli…
Is There Method in Our Madness? Ways of Assessing Cognition in International Relations
Cognition is central to the study of international affairs and underlies concepts such as power and interest. Yet, in spite of its importance, only recently have methodologies been developed to systematically analyze cognition. This essay begins by identifying the role that cognition plays in international politics; it then looks at some of the challenges faced in trying to assess cognition and how technology is assisting with these challenges. T…
Systematic Procedures for Operational Code Analysis
In this article we introduce a new scoring system for doing operational code analysis and test its reliability and validity by measuring and modeling President Jimmy Carter's operational code. Using speeches from the public record we construct indices for the elements of the operational code construct. Based upon the valences and scaled intensities of verbs uttered in the speeches, President Jimmy Carter's views of the political universe and appr…
Explaining groupthink
Do psychological characteristics of leaders affect groupthink? This paper investigates the extent to which presidents' Conceptual Complexity, Belief in Ability to Control Events, and Need for Affiliation affect foreign policy decision making structures and processes in 19 Cold War crises. Independent variables are derived from personality-at-a-distance techniques using presidential press conferences. Comparative data on the presidential character…
Cooperative and Conflictual Policy Preferences
What is the connection between identity and conflict behavior? This article begins by exploring some of the theoretical currents in this area, notably social identity theory, Erikson's work on identity development, Burton's ontological needs, and image theory. The theories differ somewhat in their expectations of the effect of identity development. Two studies were conducted to investigate these differences. The first, a priming experiment, parti…
Presidential Operational Codes and Foreign Policy Conflicts in the Post-Cold War World
The authors investigate the linkage between presidential operational codes and the management of foreign policy conflicts during the period of strategic adjustment in American foreign policy following the cold war. Beliefs expressed in public speeches by Presidents George Bush and Bill Clinton are coded for self and other attributions that represent different forms of the exercise of political power. Bush's beliefs reveal a less cooperative, rela…
International Nongovernmental Organizations and Third World Education in 1990
International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) are at the core of an evolving and increasingly coherent world culture that promotes universally recognized norms of development and education in the Third World. INGOs work directly with local communities to build new schools, provide educational materials, encourage enrollments. INGOs also propagate world educational standards and goals. This article presents the first quantitative, cross-nati…
The Political Universe of Lyndon B. Johnson and His Advisors
This study uses the Verbs in Context System (VICS) to analyze and compare the operational codes of President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors during the Vietnam conflict. The initial focus is on changes in Johnson's general operational code as revealed in public statements during the period leading to the decisions to bomb North Vietnam and to intervene with ground forces in South Vietnam. Johnson's public operational codes for the domestic, forei…
Issues in Assessing Psychological Characteristics at a Distance
This article provides an overview of the issues, methods, and constructs presented in the papers for the symposium Issues in Assessing Psychological Characteristics at a Distance. These papers share a substantive focus on the psychological characteristics of U.S. presidents and a common commitment to the use of ‘at‐a‐distance’ assessment techniques. In this context, at‐a distance measures raise several substantive and methodological issues, inclu…
Bill Clinton's Operational Code
This paper considers Bill Clinton's operational code as reflected in prepared speeches and spontaneous remarks. Differences between the two types of verbal material, their respective differences over time, and their respective variation after key intervening political events were subjected to analysis of variance as well as descriptive analyses. The results suggest that measurements based on spontaneous comments are preferable, particularly in pr…
Urbanization and Development
Half of the world's population will live in cities by the early twenty-first century, and, of the ten most populated cities, nine will be in the developing world. Unfortunately, this is occurring at a time when national governments are increasingly unable to provide basic public services to growing populations. International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) have dramatically increased their efforts in urban areas and in economic and social d…
The Process-Outcome Connection in Foreign Policy Decision Making
This article investigates whether certain factors pertaining to the process of foreign policy decision making have a measurable, qualitative effect on foreign policy outcomes. The research is grounded in the groupthink literature but incorporates different dimensions of similar underlying notions from other international relations areas as well. Three different types of process factors are investigated: situational factors, such as stress and tim…
Science, Empiricism, and Tolerance in the Study of Foreign Policymaking
This essay focuses on various practices in research in the field of international relations (IR) in general and foreign policy analysis (FPA) in particular. These practices shape our research programs today as they have in the past and are quite certain to do in the future. The kinds of questions and issues raised in this essay are hardly novel but are worthwhile revisiting in the context of thinking about the next twenty years in the field. Two …
Family School Enrollment in Rural Malawi and Kenya
This study examines family school enrollment practices under five distinct national/regional contexts in two sub-Saharan African nations, Malawi and Kenya. This paper presents a model of family enrollment practices rooted in family economy theory and dependent upon local, regional, and national contexts of schooling. The model incorporates social capital arguments that family decision-making strategies may be influenced by members' networks of so…
The Failure of the United Nations Development Programs for Africa (review)
Reviewed by: The Failure of the United Nations Development Programs for Africa Loveness Schafer and Mark Schafer Ratsimbaharison, Adrien . 2003. The Failure of the United Nations Development Programs for Africa. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. 196 pp. $29.00 (paper) My favorite aspect of this book was the author's discussion of the United Nations General Assembly processes that led to the United Nations Program of Action for the African …
Family Contributions to Self Help Schooling in Malawi and Kenya
In the 1980s and 1990s African societies responded to reduced state educational capacity by expanding the reach of civil society-non-state societal organizations that sought to organize individuals and mobilize local resources for education and development. In this paper, I argue that rural African families were differentially prepared to respond to these changes in state-society relations. I develop a model of family contributions to self help s…
Operational Code Analysis at a Distance
Snyder, Bruck, and Sapin (1962) argued many years ago that those of us interested in understanding foreign policy decisions needed to get inside the “black box” of the decision-making process. Doing so, they pointed out, required a focus on the agents involved in the process. This agent-centered approach differed significantly from the broader, structural approaches that had marked the study of global politics prior to their revolutionary work. A…
Belief Systems as Causal Mechanisms in World Politics
As the quotation from Smith (1988) indicates, research programs in foreign policy analysis have always maintained that who decides matters. Since the end of the cold war, more scholars and policy makers have come to appreciate the need to study belief systems as causal mechanisms in the post-cold war world. Following their failure to anticipate and explain the end of the conflict between the superpowers, rational choice and international relation…
Beliefs and Leadership in World Politics
Operational Codes and the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland
Journal Article Operational Codes and the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland: A Test of the Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis Get access Mark Schafer, Mark Schafer Louisiana State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Sam Robison, Sam Robison Louisiana State University Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Bradley Aldrich Bradley Aldrich Louisiana State University Search …
Democratic Leaders and the Democratic Peace
Do the beliefs of leaders make a significant difference in determining if democracies are peaceful and explaining why democracies (almost) never fight one another? Our comparisons of Prime Minister Tony Blair and President Bill Clinton reveal that both leaders view democracies as more friendly than nondemocracies, and they have significantly less cooperative beliefs toward the latter than toward the former, a difference that extends to the behavi…
Political science (37 works) · Psychology (23 works) · Sociology (22 works) · Computer Science (18 works) · Law (17 works) · Economics (16 works) · Politics (16 works) · International Relations and Foreign Policy (14 works) · Social Psychology (13 works) · Social Psychology (13 works)