H Lee Swanson
Biographic Data
| ID | 2543773 |
|---|---|
| NAME | H Lee Swanson |
| GIVEN NAMES | H Lee |
| FAMILY NAME | Swanson |
| SIGNATURE | SWANSON H L |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of California, Riverside |
| ORCID | 0000-0002-5700-4497 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 28 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 49 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 28 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1977 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 4 |
Do Earlier Classroom Instructional Activities Matter in Overcoming Emerging Bilingual Children's Mathematical Difficulties? A Multilevel Analysis of Instructional Effects and First-Language Interactio…
Emergent bilingual learners whose first language (L1) is Spanish and second language (L2) is English make up a large percentage of students who do not demonstrate proficiency in math. In 2024, 48% of fourth-grade students who were identified as English learners performed below basic proficiency in mathematics, compared to 21% of students who reported English as their primary language. This study investigated the relationship between instructional…
Fiftieth Anniversary
Important articles published in Learning Disability Quarterly (LDQ) during the years 1988 to 1998 were reviewed. Ten articles were identified with citations still occurring to date (2020–2025). These articles focused on strategy instruction, metacognition, fluency training, social skills, risk factors, and identification of children with learning disabilities across the United States. Also discussed during the 1988 to 1998 time were LDQ articles …
Mathematical problem solving in emergent bilingual children
Stability of learning disabilities, cognitive growth, and L1 in English learners
This study investigated the stability of latent classes of students with learning disabilities among a heterogeneous sample of elementary-aged children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, children (N = 284) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 (Year 1) were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures (short-term memory, working memory, rapid naming, inhibition) in both Spanish (L1) and English (L2). These same…
The phonological loop and dual language learning
The phonological loop of the working memory system plays a key role in language learning. This study examined the trajectories between two dual-language learner groups (English Learners [ELs] and Spanish Learners [SLs]) on phonological loop measures in L1 and L2. At Grade 1, children completed a battery of vocabulary and cognitive measures and were retested in Grade 3. A series of random effects ANOVAs showed that SLs outperformed ELs on English …
Cognition and writing development in early adolescent English learners
What mediates the relationship between growth in math problem-solving and working memory in English language learners
The influence of teachers’ math instructional practices on English learners’ reading comprehension and math problem-solving performance in Spanish and English
We explored the role of three math instructional practices by teachers (explicit instruction, guided practice, peer interaction) in predicting current Spanish and English reading comprehension and later Spanish and English math problem-solving performance of English learners (ELs). In this study, math was taught in Spanish. We had 26 teachers and 319 Spanish-speaking ELs from dual language classrooms. Of concern was whether the teachers’ use of t…
The domain-specific approach of working memory training
The role of language comprehension skills and instructional practices in cross-language influence of Spanish-speaking dual language learners’ calculation skills
The stability of learning disabilities among emergent bilingual children
This study investigated the prevalence and stability of latent classes among elementary-aged English learning (EL) children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, EL children (N = 267) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 (Year 1) were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures (short-term memory, working memory, rapid naming, inhibition) in both Spanish and English. These same measures were also administered on…
A meta-analysis on the relation between reading and working memory
The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between reading and working memory (WM) in the context of 3 major theories: the domain-specificity theory (debate) of WM, the intrinsic cognitive load theory, and the dual process theory. A meta-analysis of 197 studies with 2026 effect sizes found a significant moderate correlation between reading and WM, r = .29, 95% CI [.27, .31]. Moderation analyses indicated that after controlling for pu…
Verbal and visual-spatial working memory
This study investigates whether age-related changes in the structure of 5 complex working memory (WM) tasks (a) reflect a general or domain specific system, (b) follows a similar trajectory across different age spans, and (c) contribute domain general or domain specific resources to achievement measures. The study parsed the sample (N = 2,471) into 11 age groups (mean ages of 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 18, 26, 41, and 66 years), and compared their p…
A Japanese Short Form of the Swanson Cognitive Processing Test to Measure Working Memory
The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of a Japanese short form of the Swanson Cognitive Processing Test, which assesses capacity of working memory. Test-retest reliability was acceptable (r = .76). Concurrent validity was suggested through comparison of scores on the Reading Span Task (r = .55). Means on the Japanese short form were comparable with means for the 3 subtests for the older group and 2 subtests for the…
What develops in working memory? A life span perspective
This study investigated whether working-memory (WM) span differences across age are attributable to specific or general processing functions. The study compared 9 age groups (6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 24, 35, 45, 57 years) on verbal and visuospatial WM performance under initial (no probes or cues), gain (cues that bring performance to an asymptotic level), and maintenance conditions (asymptotic conditions without cues). (a) Age-related performance differ…
Learning disabled and average readers' working memory and comprehension
The present study investigates (a) whether learning disabled readers' working memory deficits that underlie poor reading comprehension are related to a general system, and (b) whether metacognition contributes to comprehension beyond what is predicted by working memory and word knowledge. To this end, performance between learning and disabled ( N =60) and average readers ( N =60) was compared on the reading comprehension, reading rate, and vocabu…
An Information Processing Analysis of Learning Disabled Children's Problem Solving
This study determines whether learning disabled children's mental processing during problem solving is qualitatively different from average- and gifted-achieving peers, and whether these processing differences are attributable to metacognitive knowledge. To this end, problem solution, "think-aloud" protocols during problem solving, and metacognitive responses from a questionnaire were analyzed. Although learning disabled children were comparable …
An Information Processing Analysis of Learning Disabled Children’s Problem Solving
This study determines whether learning disabled children’s mental processing during problem solving is qualitatively different from average- and gifted-achieving peers, and whether these processing differences are attributable to metacognitive knowledge. To this end, problem solution, “think-aloud” protocols during problem solving, and metacognitive responses from a questionnaire were analyzed. Although learning disabled children were comparable …
Problem‐solving Subgroups as a Measure of Intellectual Giftedness
S ummary . Within a framework that views intelligence in terms of expert/novice representations, empirically derived subgroups of children were compared on problem‐solving tasks. Subgroups were determined through a hierarchical cluster analysis of “think aloud” protocols. Protocols were analysed at two levels: (a) grouping of subroutines that function as heuristic processes, and (b) grouping of subroutines that function as strategies. One subgrou…
An Information Processing Analysis of Expert and Novice Teachers’ Problem Solving
The present study examines the possible qualitative differences between expert and novice teachers in their think aloud protocols related to solving classroom discipline problems. Expert and novice teachers were presented vignettes, under two instructional conditions—directive and nondirective—and were asked to “think aloud” as they were solving problems. Data from the think aloud protocols indicated that, in the absence of directive instructions…
An Information Processing Analysis of Expert and Novice Teachers' Problem Solving
The present study examines the possible qualitative differences between expert and novice teachers in their think aloud protocols related to solving classroom discipline problems. Expert and novice teachers were presented vignettes, under two instructional conditions—directive and nondirective—and were asked to "think aloud" as they were solving problems. Data from the think aloud protocols indicated that, in the absence of directive instructions…
The Influence of Verbal Ability and Metamemory on Future Recall
S ummary . This study determines whether items from a metamemorial questionnaire would better predict recall performance than standardised measures of general verbal ability. Thirty‐two children, separated into high and average verbal ability groups, were administered a metamemory test and, one week later, two prose and free‐recall tasks. The results indicated that ability group differences were limited to certain dependent measures (i.e., mental…
Verbal-Coding Deficits in the Recall of Pictorial Information by Learning Disabled Readers
Based on a three-stage model of memory coding, comparisons were made between reading ability groups on their serial recall of pictorial information. In Experiment 1, learning disabled and skilled readers viewed pictures of low and high verbal codable shapes without names or with names either “matched” or “mismatched” with respect to the shape’s form. Regardless of the shape codability, both types of name-training conditions improved skilled reade…
Construct Validity and Reliability of the Ethical Behavior Rating Scale
Based on data from 139 adolescents, results of a factor and correlational analyses of the Ethical Behavior Rating Scale are reported. Reliability coefficients were obtained from a test-retest method and estimates of internal consistence. Construct validity was determined by correlating the rating scale with test items from the Ethical Reasoning Inventory. Two factors (moral character and verbal/moral assertiveness) were derived from the varimax r…
Memory-Metamemory Connection in Intellectually Gifted and Normal Children
Very little is known about the differences in cognitive processing between gifted and normal children. One theory (3) suggests that gifted children will exhibit better memory and more knowledge about memory (metamemory) than normal children. In the present study, differences becween gifted and normal children in memory performance and knowledge were examined. Subjects included 27 children (M CA = 13.3 yr.) divided into two groups. Thirteen subjec…
A meta-analysis on the relation between reading and working memory
The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between reading and working memory (WM) in the context of 3 major theories: the domain-specificity theory (debate) of WM, the intrinsic cognitive load theory, and the dual process theory. A meta-analysis of 197 studies with 2026 effect sizes found a significant moderate correlation between reading and WM, r = .29, 95% CI [.27, .31]. Moderation analyses indicated that after controlling for pu…
What develops in working memory? A life span perspective
This study investigated whether working-memory (WM) span differences across age are attributable to specific or general processing functions. The study compared 9 age groups (6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 24, 35, 45, 57 years) on verbal and visuospatial WM performance under initial (no probes or cues), gain (cues that bring performance to an asymptotic level), and maintenance conditions (asymptotic conditions without cues). (a) Age-related performance differ…
An Information Processing Analysis of Expert and Novice Teachers’ Problem Solving
The present study examines the possible qualitative differences between expert and novice teachers in their think aloud protocols related to solving classroom discipline problems. Expert and novice teachers were presented vignettes, under two instructional conditions—directive and nondirective—and were asked to “think aloud” as they were solving problems. Data from the think aloud protocols indicated that, in the absence of directive instructions…
Verbal and visual-spatial working memory
This study investigates whether age-related changes in the structure of 5 complex working memory (WM) tasks (a) reflect a general or domain specific system, (b) follows a similar trajectory across different age spans, and (c) contribute domain general or domain specific resources to achievement measures. The study parsed the sample (N = 2,471) into 11 age groups (mean ages of 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 18, 26, 41, and 66 years), and compared their p…
The phonological loop and dual language learning
The phonological loop of the working memory system plays a key role in language learning. This study examined the trajectories between two dual-language learner groups (English Learners [ELs] and Spanish Learners [SLs]) on phonological loop measures in L1 and L2. At Grade 1, children completed a battery of vocabulary and cognitive measures and were retested in Grade 3. A series of random effects ANOVAs showed that SLs outperformed ELs on English …
The role of language comprehension skills and instructional practices in cross-language influence of Spanish-speaking dual language learners’ calculation skills
The Influence of Verbal Ability and Metamemory on Future Recall
S ummary . This study determines whether items from a metamemorial questionnaire would better predict recall performance than standardised measures of general verbal ability. Thirty‐two children, separated into high and average verbal ability groups, were administered a metamemory test and, one week later, two prose and free‐recall tasks. The results indicated that ability group differences were limited to certain dependent measures (i.e., mental…
Dimensionality and Signal Detection Effects on a Short-Term Memory Task with Mentally Retarded Children
The purpose was to compare a priori and d′ measures using data from Swanson and Watson's (1976) study with 10 mentally retarded children on a serial recognition task. Treatment main effects were similar using both measures. Significant primacy and recency effects were found with d′ measures, however, this was not found in a post hoc analysis of proportion correct scores. The results suggested that future investigations of serial recognition perfo…
Relations Among Metamemory, Rehearsal Activity and Word Recall of Learning Disabled and Non‐disabled Readers
S ummary . Readers who were learning disabled and non‐disabled between ages 8 and 10 free‐recalled unrelated word lists of three different levels of rehearsal activity (spontaneous, one‐item, multi‐item). Prior to recall they estimated their word recall ability, while retrieval knowledge was assessed after free recall. Results indicated older children free recalled more words than younger, and non‐disabled more than disabled. Learning disabled an…
Memory-Metamemory Connection in Intellectually Gifted and Normal Children
Very little is known about the differences in cognitive processing between gifted and normal children. One theory (3) suggests that gifted children will exhibit better memory and more knowledge about memory (metamemory) than normal children. In the present study, differences becween gifted and normal children in memory performance and knowledge were examined. Subjects included 27 children (M CA = 13.3 yr.) divided into two groups. Thirteen subjec…
Phonological Recoding and Suppression Effects in Children's Sentence Comprehension
THE PRESENT EXPERIMENT investigated the role of phonological recoding in accounting for children's passage comprehension. Two groups of children (ages 10 and 14) were compared on silent reading and listening comprehension of nouns, verbs, and concepts within and across sentences under conditions of suppressed and nonsu-ppressed phonological recoding. For both age groups, the effect of suppressed recoding was found to be specific to comprehension …
Construct Validity and Reliability of the Ethical Behavior Rating Scale
Based on data from 139 adolescents, results of a factor and correlational analyses of the Ethical Behavior Rating Scale are reported. Reliability coefficients were obtained from a test-retest method and estimates of internal consistence. Construct validity was determined by correlating the rating scale with test items from the Ethical Reasoning Inventory. Two factors (moral character and verbal/moral assertiveness) were derived from the varimax r…
The Influence of Verbal Ability and Metamemory on Future Recall
S ummary . This study determines whether items from a metamemorial questionnaire would better predict recall performance than standardised measures of general verbal ability. Thirty‐two children, separated into high and average verbal ability groups, were administered a metamemory test and, one week later, two prose and free‐recall tasks. The results indicated that ability group differences were limited to certain dependent measures (i.e., mental…
Verbal-Coding Deficits in the Recall of Pictorial Information by Learning Disabled Readers
Based on a three-stage model of memory coding, comparisons were made between reading ability groups on their serial recall of pictorial information. In Experiment 1, learning disabled and skilled readers viewed pictures of low and high verbal codable shapes without names or with names either “matched” or “mismatched” with respect to the shape’s form. Regardless of the shape codability, both types of name-training conditions improved skilled reade…
An Information Processing Analysis of Expert and Novice Teachers’ Problem Solving
The present study examines the possible qualitative differences between expert and novice teachers in their think aloud protocols related to solving classroom discipline problems. Expert and novice teachers were presented vignettes, under two instructional conditions—directive and nondirective—and were asked to “think aloud” as they were solving problems. Data from the think aloud protocols indicated that, in the absence of directive instructions…
An Information Processing Analysis of Expert and Novice Teachers' Problem Solving
The present study examines the possible qualitative differences between expert and novice teachers in their think aloud protocols related to solving classroom discipline problems. Expert and novice teachers were presented vignettes, under two instructional conditions—directive and nondirective—and were asked to "think aloud" as they were solving problems. Data from the think aloud protocols indicated that, in the absence of directive instructions…
Problem‐solving Subgroups as a Measure of Intellectual Giftedness
S ummary . Within a framework that views intelligence in terms of expert/novice representations, empirically derived subgroups of children were compared on problem‐solving tasks. Subgroups were determined through a hierarchical cluster analysis of “think aloud” protocols. Protocols were analysed at two levels: (a) grouping of subroutines that function as heuristic processes, and (b) grouping of subroutines that function as strategies. One subgrou…
An Information Processing Analysis of Learning Disabled Children's Problem Solving
This study determines whether learning disabled children's mental processing during problem solving is qualitatively different from average- and gifted-achieving peers, and whether these processing differences are attributable to metacognitive knowledge. To this end, problem solution, "think-aloud" protocols during problem solving, and metacognitive responses from a questionnaire were analyzed. Although learning disabled children were comparable …
An Information Processing Analysis of Learning Disabled Children’s Problem Solving
This study determines whether learning disabled children’s mental processing during problem solving is qualitatively different from average- and gifted-achieving peers, and whether these processing differences are attributable to metacognitive knowledge. To this end, problem solution, “think-aloud” protocols during problem solving, and metacognitive responses from a questionnaire were analyzed. Although learning disabled children were comparable …
Learning disabled and average readers' working memory and comprehension
The present study investigates (a) whether learning disabled readers' working memory deficits that underlie poor reading comprehension are related to a general system, and (b) whether metacognition contributes to comprehension beyond what is predicted by working memory and word knowledge. To this end, performance between learning and disabled ( N =60) and average readers ( N =60) was compared on the reading comprehension, reading rate, and vocabu…
What develops in working memory? A life span perspective
This study investigated whether working-memory (WM) span differences across age are attributable to specific or general processing functions. The study compared 9 age groups (6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 24, 35, 45, 57 years) on verbal and visuospatial WM performance under initial (no probes or cues), gain (cues that bring performance to an asymptotic level), and maintenance conditions (asymptotic conditions without cues). (a) Age-related performance differ…
A Japanese Short Form of the Swanson Cognitive Processing Test to Measure Working Memory
The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of a Japanese short form of the Swanson Cognitive Processing Test, which assesses capacity of working memory. Test-retest reliability was acceptable (r = .76). Concurrent validity was suggested through comparison of scores on the Reading Span Task (r = .55). Means on the Japanese short form were comparable with means for the 3 subtests for the older group and 2 subtests for the…
Verbal and visual-spatial working memory
This study investigates whether age-related changes in the structure of 5 complex working memory (WM) tasks (a) reflect a general or domain specific system, (b) follows a similar trajectory across different age spans, and (c) contribute domain general or domain specific resources to achievement measures. The study parsed the sample (N = 2,471) into 11 age groups (mean ages of 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 18, 26, 41, and 66 years), and compared their p…
A meta-analysis on the relation between reading and working memory
The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between reading and working memory (WM) in the context of 3 major theories: the domain-specificity theory (debate) of WM, the intrinsic cognitive load theory, and the dual process theory. A meta-analysis of 197 studies with 2026 effect sizes found a significant moderate correlation between reading and WM, r = .29, 95% CI [.27, .31]. Moderation analyses indicated that after controlling for pu…
The stability of learning disabilities among emergent bilingual children
This study investigated the prevalence and stability of latent classes among elementary-aged English learning (EL) children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, EL children (N = 267) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 (Year 1) were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures (short-term memory, working memory, rapid naming, inhibition) in both Spanish and English. These same measures were also administered on…
Cognition and writing development in early adolescent English learners
What mediates the relationship between growth in math problem-solving and working memory in English language learners
The influence of teachers’ math instructional practices on English learners’ reading comprehension and math problem-solving performance in Spanish and English
We explored the role of three math instructional practices by teachers (explicit instruction, guided practice, peer interaction) in predicting current Spanish and English reading comprehension and later Spanish and English math problem-solving performance of English learners (ELs). In this study, math was taught in Spanish. We had 26 teachers and 319 Spanish-speaking ELs from dual language classrooms. Of concern was whether the teachers’ use of t…
The domain-specific approach of working memory training
The role of language comprehension skills and instructional practices in cross-language influence of Spanish-speaking dual language learners’ calculation skills
Stability of learning disabilities, cognitive growth, and L1 in English learners
This study investigated the stability of latent classes of students with learning disabilities among a heterogeneous sample of elementary-aged children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, children (N = 284) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 (Year 1) were administered a battery of vocabulary, reading, math, and cognitive measures (short-term memory, working memory, rapid naming, inhibition) in both Spanish (L1) and English (L2). These same…
The phonological loop and dual language learning
The phonological loop of the working memory system plays a key role in language learning. This study examined the trajectories between two dual-language learner groups (English Learners [ELs] and Spanish Learners [SLs]) on phonological loop measures in L1 and L2. At Grade 1, children completed a battery of vocabulary and cognitive measures and were retested in Grade 3. A series of random effects ANOVAs showed that SLs outperformed ELs on English …
Psychology (26 works) · Cognition (20 works) · Cognitive psychology (19 works) · Developmental psychology (19 works) · Reading and Literacy Development (14 works) · Linguistics (12 works) · Working memory (11 works) · Computer Science (10 works) · Mathematics education (9 works) · Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills (8 works)