Carmi Schooler
Biographic Data
| ID | 4591656 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Carmi Schooler |
| GIVEN NAMES | Carmi |
| FAMILY NAME | Schooler |
| SIGNATURE | SCHOOLER C |
| AFFILIATIONS | National Institute of Mental Health |
| VERIFIED | No |
| TOTAL WORKS | 59 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 1998 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 59 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1960 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2018 |
| H-INDEX | 14 |
Work made us what we are: Complexity of work, self-directedness of orientation, and intellectual flexibility of older US and Japanese men
Effects of Social Context on Holistic Versus Analytic Orientation: A Cross-Cultural Experiment
An experiment carried out in the United States and China investigated how social context affects cognitive orientation. Explanations for cultural differences in cognitive orientation is that they are rooted in agricultural practices that encourage relatively more holistic or analytic orientations. Recent work has proposed that social network structures might lead to more holistic orientations in two ways—by leading individuals to feel strong soci…
Social Change and Psychological Change in Rural Mali
We examine the effects of socio-environmental change on personality in Mali in three ways, using data from a longitudinal two-wave (1994, 2004) survey conducted in rural Mali. Firstly, we compare the between-wave personality stability of Anxiety, Self-confidence, Mastery/Fatalism, and Authoritarianism with that in USA, Japan, Poland, and Ukraine. Secondly, we examine socio-economic hardship and political instability in pre-industrial Mali. Thirdl…
Parental Practices and Willingness to Ask for Children's Help Later in Life
We examine how parents' relationships with their 13- to 25-year-old offspring affect the parents' willingness to ask them for help with financial and personal problems 20 years later. Husbands and wives were interviewed in 1974 and 1994; a child was interviewed in 1974. We used two aspects of parental style, responsiveness and restrictive dominance, to predict parents' willingness to request help from a child 20 years later. Structural equation m…
Socioeconomic Status and Financial Coping Strategies: The Mediating Role of Perceived Control
We examine the relations among socioeconomic status, control beliefs, and two coping styles (problem-focused vs. emotion-focused) in the context of financial stress. Findings indicate that low socioeconomic status (SES) is linked to greater use of emotion-focused financial coping and lesser use of problem-focused financial coping. The effects of SES on the use of problem-focused financial coping appear to be entirely mediated by two measures of p…
Household Work Complexity, Intellectual Functioning, and Self-Esteem in Men and Women
Using data from a U.S. longitudinal investigation of psychological effects of occupational conditions (a project of the National Institute of Mental Health's unit on Socioenvironmental Studies), we examined the relationship between the complexity of household work and 2 psychological variables: intellectual flexibility and self-esteem. Longitudinal reciprocal effects analyses revealed that for men (n = 351) and women (n = 355), more complex house…
Occupational Self-Direction, Intellectual Functioning, and Self-Directed Orientation in Older Workers: Findings and Implications for Individuals and Societies
Using data from 1994–95 third‐wave interviews, this study tests whether Kohn and Schooler’s findings (based on 1964 and 1974 interviews) that self‐directed occupational conditions increase intellectual functioning and self‐directed orientations hold when the respondents are 20 years older. Results confirm that even late in life self‐directedness of work continues to affect intellectual functioning and self‐directedness of orientation. These psych…
Causal Connections between Socio-Economic Status and Health: Reciprocal Effects and Mediating Mechanisms
Using structural equation modeling techniques on data from a nationally representative longitudinal survey, we first explored the reciprocal relationships between socio-economic status (SES) and health status. We then estimated the degree to which health-related lifestyles/behaviors and psychosocial distress are mediating mechanisms of these relationships. As predicted, SES positively affects health, and health positively affects SES. Although th…
The Latent Structure of Memory: A Confirmatory Factor-Analytic Study of Memory Distinctions
Confirmatory factor analysis was used to investigate the nature of memory distinctions underlying the performance of two samples: a sample of male Vietnam War veterans who had not received head injuries, and a second sample of male Vietnam War veterans who had suffered penetrating head injuries resulting in relatively small lesions (<10 cc volume loss). For these two groups, comparisons were made of the fit of seven theory-based memory models, co…
The continuing effects of substantively complex work on the intellectual functioning of older workers.
Impact of Work on Older Adults
History, Social Structure and Individualism: A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Japan
This paper explores how history and social structure affect individualism in Japan. In doing so, it reports on a variety of cross-cultural studies comparing Japan with the West. Although I have been involved in most of these studies, their approaches vary markedly. They span the range from broad historical comparisons covering centuries to analyses of variance of fine-grained time samples of parent and child behavior. The disciplines involved inc…
Conducting a Complex Sociological Survey in Rural Mali: Three Points of View
The authors describe a cross-cultural collaborative attempt between American and Malian investigators to apply standard sociological survey techniques to three generally preliterate, nonindustrial ethnic groups in rural Mali-the Dogon, Peulh, and Bozo. The study examines how socioenvironmental factors (e.g., occupational conditions, migration, exposure to Western culture) affect values, orientations to self and others, psychological distress, cop…
Cultural and Social-Structural Explanations of Cross-National Psychological Differences
This chapter examines cross-national differences in individual values, attitudes, and behaviors. The central question raised is how social-structural and cultural factors account for the differences found. After discussing a series of theoretical issues raised by this question, the chapter reviews the findings of four quantitative sociological research programs on modern cross-national differences. The program on individual modernity led by Alex …
Global Self-Esteem and Specific Self-Esteem: Different Concepts, Different Outcomes
Les AA. eclairent la relation entre estime de soi globale (Rosenberg 1979) et estime de soi specifique (academique). Ils montrent que ces deux types d'evaluation ne sont pas equivalent. L'estime de soi globale etant plus adequate en ce qui concerne la perception psychosociologique du bien-etre et l'estime de soi specifique (academique) plus pertinente en ce qui concerne le comportement et constituant plus particulierement un indicateur de perform…
Social class, occupational status, occupational self-direction, and job income: A cross-national examination
Japanese Sense of Self
A Working Conceptualization of Social Structure: Mertonian Roots and Psychological and Sociocultural Relationships
Using a small user of interlocking definitions, this paper presents a generally applicable conceptualization of social structure developed from recollections of Merton's late-1950s formulation. A brief review of the literature supports the view that the proposed conceptualization provides sociological researchers with a relatively simple and logically consistent overall framework, generally continuous with past theorizing, in which to place their…
In Defense of Modernity: Role Complexity and Individual Autonomy
Self-Directedness: Cause and Effects Throughout the Life Course
Culture Control and Commitment: A Study of Work Organization and Work Attitudes in the United States and Japan. James R. Lincoln , Arne L. Kalleberg
The individual in Japanese history: Parallels to and divergences from the European experience
Psychological Consequences of Occupational Conditions Among Japanese Wives
Michiko Naoi, Carmi Schooler, Psychological Consequences of Occupational Conditions Among Japanese Wives, Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 53, No. 2, Special Issue: Social Structure and the Individual (Jun., 1990), pp. 100-116
Position in the Class Structure and Psychological Functioning in the United States, Japan, and Poland
This article conceptualizes and indexes social class for a Western capitalist country (the United States), a non-Western capitalist country (Japan), and a socialist country (Poland). The idea that social classes are to be distinguished in terms of ownership, control of the means of production, and control over the labor power of others is adapted to the historical, cultural, economic, and political circumstances of each country. It is hypothesize…
Social Structure and Personality Development: The Individual as a Productive Processor of Reality
The Structure of Coping
Global Self-Esteem and Specific Self-Esteem: Different Concepts, Different Outcomes
Les AA. eclairent la relation entre estime de soi globale (Rosenberg 1979) et estime de soi specifique (academique). Ils montrent que ces deux types d'evaluation ne sont pas equivalent. L'estime de soi globale etant plus adequate en ce qui concerne la perception psychosociologique du bien-etre et l'estime de soi specifique (academique) plus pertinente en ce qui concerne le comportement et constituant plus particulierement un indicateur de perform…
Occupational Experience and Psychological Functioning: An Assessment of Reciprocal Effects
The central issue of this paper is whether men's adult occupational experiences affect or only reflect their psychological functioning. Our analysis isolates a small set of occupational conditions, twelve in all, which defines the structural imperatives of the job. These occupational conditions are found to be substantially related to men's psychological functioning, off as well as on the job. We argue that the relationships between occupational …
Class, Occupation, and Orientation
Self-Esteem and Adolescent Problems: Modeling Reciprocal Effects
Past research has treated self-esteem either as a social force or as a social product. However, this research has not given adequate attention to the reciprocal effects of the self-concept and various social and personal factors. A panel of 1886 adolescent boys is used to explore the reciprocal relationships between self-esteem and three problems of youth: juvenile delinquency; poor school performance; and psychological depression. Wefind that lo…
Job Conditions and Personality: A Longitudinal Assessment of Their Reciprocal Effects
In earlier work, we assessed a longitudinal causal model of the reciprocal effects of the substative complexity of work and intellectual flexibility. In this paper, we greatly expand the causal model to consider sumultaneously several structural imperatives of the job and three major dimensions of personality-ideational flexibility, a self directed orientation to self and society, and a sense of distress. The analysis demonstrates that the struct…
The Reciprocal Effects of the Substantive Complexity of Work and Intellectual Flexibility: A Longitudinal Assessment
Our previous research, based on cross-sectional data, provided prima facie evidence of a reciprocal relationship between the substantive complesity of men's work and their intellectual flexibility. The present study employs longitudinal data to make a more definitive assessment. Using maximum-likelihood confirmatory factor analysis to separate measurement error from real change, it develops measurement models for both substantive complexity and i…
Position in the Class Structure and Psychological Functioning in the United States, Japan, and Poland
This article conceptualizes and indexes social class for a Western capitalist country (the United States), a non-Western capitalist country (Japan), and a socialist country (Poland). The idea that social classes are to be distinguished in terms of ownership, control of the means of production, and control over the labor power of others is adapted to the historical, cultural, economic, and political circumstances of each country. It is hypothesize…
Causal Connections between Socio-Economic Status and Health: Reciprocal Effects and Mediating Mechanisms
Using structural equation modeling techniques on data from a nationally representative longitudinal survey, we first explored the reciprocal relationships between socio-economic status (SES) and health status. We then estimated the degree to which health-related lifestyles/behaviors and psychosocial distress are mediating mechanisms of these relationships. As predicted, SES positively affects health, and health positively affects SES. Although th…
Women and Work: The Psychological Effects of Occupational Conditions
For employed women, job conditions that encourage self-direction are related to effective intellectual functioning and an open, flexible orientation to others, while those tha constrain opportunities for self direction are related to ineffective intellectual functioning and a rigid social orientation. Moreover, several types of job pressures and uncertainties are related to less effective intellectual functioning, unfavorable evaluations of self,…
Birth order effects: Not here, not now
Educational Self-Direction and Personality
We examine the relationship between a central aspect of schooling-educational self-direction-and students' personalities. The data are from a small but substantially representative nationwide sample of white students in the seventh grade through the fourth year of college. We separately assess the reciprocal effects of educational self-direction and two non-cognitive aspects of personality-selfdirectedness of orientation and sense of distress. As…
Socioeconomic Status and Financial Coping Strategies: The Mediating Role of Perceived Control
We examine the relations among socioeconomic status, control beliefs, and two coping styles (problem-focused vs. emotion-focused) in the context of financial stress. Findings indicate that low socioeconomic status (SES) is linked to greater use of emotion-focused financial coping and lesser use of problem-focused financial coping. The effects of SES on the use of problem-focused financial coping appear to be entirely mediated by two measures of p…
Cultural and Social-Structural Explanations of Cross-National Psychological Differences
This chapter examines cross-national differences in individual values, attitudes, and behaviors. The central question raised is how social-structural and cultural factors account for the differences found. After discussing a series of theoretical issues raised by this question, the chapter reviews the findings of four quantitative sociological research programs on modern cross-national differences. The program on individual modernity led by Alex …
Work for the Household: Its Nature and Consequences for Husbands and Wives
This paper examines the conditions under which work for the household is performed, comparing these conditions and their effects with those of paid employment. Although there are some significant differences, the working conditions of housework do not differ greatly from those of paid employment. There are, however, as expected, marked sex differences in spheres of responsibility and activity. Wives are responsible for and actually do a vastly wi…
Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values
Culture influences both individual behavior and how businesses operate. Those working in both the business and policy arenas must understand other cultures and avoid ethnocentrism. Culture is defined as the collective programming of the mind; in the modern context it exists within national borders. Using data from surveys of employees in 40 countries at the HERMES Corporation in 1968 and 1972, four categories of cultural difference become clear a…
Occupational Conditions and Psychological Functioning in Japan
This paper compares the occupational conditions of workers in Japan and the United States and tests whether the reciprocal effects of occupational conditions and psychological functioning in Japan are similar to those found in the United States. The comparisons of occupational conditions reveal a tendency for work in Japan to be done in a way in which consensus is promoted and individual responsibility avoided. The central result of the analysis …
Serfdom's Legacy: An Ethnic Continuum
The effects of ethnicity appear to occur along a historically determined continuum which reflects the social, legal, economic, and occupational conditions of the European countries from which American ethnic groups emigrated. Ethnic groups with a recent history of serfdom show the intellectual inflexibility, authoritarianism, and pragmatic legalistic morality previously found characteristic of American men working under occupational conditions li…
Occupational Self-Direction, Intellectual Functioning, and Self-Directed Orientation in Older Workers: Findings and Implications for Individuals and Societies
Using data from 1994–95 third‐wave interviews, this study tests whether Kohn and Schooler’s findings (based on 1964 and 1974 interviews) that self‐directed occupational conditions increase intellectual functioning and self‐directed orientations hold when the respondents are 20 years older. Results confirm that even late in life self‐directedness of work continues to affect intellectual functioning and self‐directedness of orientation. These psych…
The Psychological Effects of Traditional and of Economically Peripheral Job Settings in Japan
This article examines how working in a traditional industry and in an economically peripheral sector of the economy affects Japanese workers' attitudes toward their places in the socioeconomic system as well as their broader psychological functioning. In support of long-held sociological theories, the article indicates that workers in traditional industries not only have more traditional moral values but are less alienated and more comfortable wi…
Symptomatology in Japanese and American Schizophrenics
Psychological Consequences of Occupational Conditions Among Japanese Wives
Michiko Naoi, Carmi Schooler, Psychological Consequences of Occupational Conditions Among Japanese Wives, Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 53, No. 2, Special Issue: Social Structure and the Individual (Jun., 1990), pp. 100-116
Social Antecedents of Adult Psychological Functioning
The variables of age, father's education, rural upbringing, religion, and region in which one was raised are related to the complexity of the child-rearing environment. Having been reared in a complex, multifaceted environment results in a relatively high level of intellectual functioning, a rejection of external constraints, and a subjectivism stressing concern for the quality of one's inner life. The latter two trends are components of the proc…
A Note of Extreme Caution on the Use of Guttman Scales
Since the change occurence of the various scale types is a function of the joint probability of the occurrence of their constituent responses, it is possible that Scalograms meeting currently acceptable levels of Scalabity and Reproducibility can occur by chance alone. Even Chilton's method, which determines whether the observed Reproducibility is significantly better than chance, does not guarantee that a scale is homogeneous; significant Reprod…
History, Social Structure and Individualism: A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Japan
This paper explores how history and social structure affect individualism in Japan. In doing so, it reports on a variety of cross-cultural studies comparing Japan with the West. Although I have been involved in most of these studies, their approaches vary markedly. They span the range from broad historical comparisons covering centuries to analyses of variance of fine-grained time samples of parent and child behavior. The disciplines involved inc…
Social Interaction On a Ward of Chronic Schizophrenics
Affiliation among chronic schizophrenics: Relation to intrapersonal and birth order factors1
Birth order and hospitalization for schizophrenia
Symptomatology in Japanese and American Schizophrenics
A Note of Extreme Caution on the Use of Guttman Scales
Since the change occurence of the various scale types is a function of the joint probability of the occurrence of their constituent responses, it is possible that Scalograms meeting currently acceptable levels of Scalabity and Reproducibility can occur by chance alone. Even Chilton's method, which determines whether the observed Reproducibility is significantly better than chance, does not guarantee that a scale is homogeneous; significant Reprod…
Class, Occupation, and Orientation
Childhood Family Structure and Adult Characteristics
Birth order effects: Not here, not now
Social Antecedents of Adult Psychological Functioning
The variables of age, father's education, rural upbringing, religion, and region in which one was raised are related to the complexity of the child-rearing environment. Having been reared in a complex, multifaceted environment results in a relatively high level of intellectual functioning, a rejection of external constraints, and a subjectivism stressing concern for the quality of one's inner life. The latter two trends are components of the proc…
Birth order effects: A reply to Breland
Occupational Experience and Psychological Functioning: An Assessment of Reciprocal Effects
The central issue of this paper is whether men's adult occupational experiences affect or only reflect their psychological functioning. Our analysis isolates a small set of occupational conditions, twelve in all, which defines the structural imperatives of the job. These occupational conditions are found to be substantially related to men's psychological functioning, off as well as on the job. We argue that the relationships between occupational …
Serfdom's Legacy: An Ethnic Continuum
The effects of ethnicity appear to occur along a historically determined continuum which reflects the social, legal, economic, and occupational conditions of the European countries from which American ethnic groups emigrated. Ethnic groups with a recent history of serfdom show the intellectual inflexibility, authoritarianism, and pragmatic legalistic morality previously found characteristic of American men working under occupational conditions li…
Response to Johnston and Yoels
And a Japanese wife.? Social structural antecedents of women's role values in Japan
Women as Mothers in Japan: The Effects of Social Structure and Culture on Values and Behavior
Combining data gathered in a survey of Japanese women's attitudes toward their various roles with the findings of a comparative study of childrearing and child behavior in Japan and the United States, the present paper examines how social structural and cultural variables affect Japanese women's maternal values and behavior. We find that the maternal role is considered the central one for women, who emphasize it at the expense of their conjugal r…
The Structure of Coping
The Reciprocal Effects of the Substantive Complexity of Work and Intellectual Flexibility: A Longitudinal Assessment
Our previous research, based on cross-sectional data, provided prima facie evidence of a reciprocal relationship between the substantive complesity of men's work and their intellectual flexibility. The present study employs longitudinal data to make a more definitive assessment. Using maximum-likelihood confirmatory factor analysis to separate measurement error from real change, it develops measurement models for both substantive complexity and i…
"Some Extensions of "The Structure of Coping: Reply
Women and Work: The Psychological Effects of Occupational Conditions
For employed women, job conditions that encourage self-direction are related to effective intellectual functioning and an open, flexible orientation to others, while those tha constrain opportunities for self direction are related to ineffective intellectual functioning and a rigid social orientation. Moreover, several types of job pressures and uncertainties are related to less effective intellectual functioning, unfavorable evaluations of self,…
Constancy and Change in Human Development
1. Constancy and Change: A View of the Issues Orville G. Brim, Jr., and Jerome Kagan 2. Perspectives on Continuity Jerome Kagan 3. The Continuous and the Discrete in the History of Science Everett Mendelsohn 4. Continuities and Change in Maturational Timing Stanley M. Garn 5. The Dynamics of Growth, Organization, and Adaptability in the Central Nervous System Donald G. Stein and Ronald G. Dawson 6. The Endocrine System Charles H. Doering 7. Physi…
Job Conditions and Personality: A Longitudinal Assessment of Their Reciprocal Effects
In earlier work, we assessed a longitudinal causal model of the reciprocal effects of the substative complexity of work and intellectual flexibility. In this paper, we greatly expand the causal model to consider sumultaneously several structural imperatives of the job and three major dimensions of personality-ideational flexibility, a self directed orientation to self and society, and a sense of distress. The analysis demonstrates that the struct…
Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values
Culture influences both individual behavior and how businesses operate. Those working in both the business and policy arenas must understand other cultures and avoid ethnocentrism. Culture is defined as the collective programming of the mind; in the modern context it exists within national borders. Using data from surveys of employees in 40 countries at the HERMES Corporation in 1968 and 1972, four categories of cultural difference become clear a…
Work and Personality: An Inquiry into the Impact of Social Stratification
Work for the Household: Its Nature and Consequences for Husbands and Wives
This paper examines the conditions under which work for the household is performed, comparing these conditions and their effects with those of paid employment. Although there are some significant differences, the working conditions of housework do not differ greatly from those of paid employment. There are, however, as expected, marked sex differences in spheres of responsibility and activity. Wives are responsible for and actually do a vastly wi…
Educational Self-Direction and the Cognitive Functioning of Students
Journal Article Educational Self-Direction and the Cognitive Functioning of Students Get access Karen A. Miller, Karen A. Miller National Institute of Mental Health and Arizona State University Address correspondence to Karen A. Miller, Department of Sociology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Melvin L. Kohn, Melvin L. Kohn National Institute of Mental Health Searc…
Psychology (52 works) · Social Psychology (32 works) · Sociology (22 works) · Social Psychology (20 works) · Developmental psychology (16 works) · Economics (16 works) · Political science (16 works) · Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction (14 works) · Cultural Differences and Values (12 works) · Employment and Welfare Studies (9 works)