R C Gardner
Biographic Data
| ID | 84328 |
|---|---|
| NAME | R C Gardner |
| GIVEN NAMES | R C |
| FAMILY NAME | Gardner |
| SIGNATURE | GARDNER R C |
| AFFILIATIONS | Western University |
| VERIFIED | No |
| TOTAL WORKS | 37 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 717 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 37 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1960 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2004 |
| H-INDEX | 13 |
Motivation and Attitudes Towards Learning Languages in Multicultural Classrooms
This study investigated the effect of the cultural background of immigrant children on affective variables in learning three different languages. Participants were students in secondary multicultural classrooms in Spain. A total of 114 students, aged 12 to 16, answered a questionnaire based on Gardner's Attitude = Motivation Test Battery assessing their attitudes, motivation and anxiety towards learning Catalan, Spanish and English. In addition, …
Integrative Motivation: Changes During a Year-Long Intermediate-Level Language Course
The socioeducational model of second Language acquisition postulates that Language learning is a dynamic process in which affective variable influence Language achievement and achievement and experiences in Language learning can influences some affective variables. Five classes of variable are emphasized: integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, motivation, Language anxiety, and instrumental orientation. The present study of a 1-…
Attitudes, Motivation, and Second Language Learning: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Conducted by Gardner and Associates
This meta-analysis investigates the relationship of second language achievement to five attitude/motivation variables from Gardner's socioeducational model: integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, motivation, integrative orientation, and instrumental orientation. These relationships were examined in studies conducted by Gardner and associates using the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery and various measures of second language achi…
A Causal Model of Spanish Immigrant Adaptation in Canada
This study was conducted to investigate the role of several sociocultural variables involved in the acculturation process and their relation to second language learning and well-being. Previous studies have supported several of the proposed relationships between these variables; however, there is a need for integrative research assessing the relationships among all of them simultaneously. The sample consisted of 248 Spanish immigrants who complet…
Home Background Characteristics and Second Language Learning
Some researchers investigating second language acquisition argue that the sociocultural milieu of the learner influences individual difference variables involved in learning a second language. This study investigated this link by assessing the linguistic nature of the home community, respondents' recollections of early experiences in second language learning, and their current attitudes and beliefs about language learning and bilingualism. The sa…
Towards a Full Model of Second Language Learning: An Empirical Investigation
Much research in second language acquisition (SLA) centres on the relationships among individual difference measures such as language attitudes, motivation, anxiety, self‐confidence, language aptitude, learning strategies, field independence, and measures of achievement in the language. Numerous studies have supported the proposed influences of these individual difference variables on achievement, and a number of models have been developed to exp…
The Subtle Effects of Language Anxiety on Cognitive Processing in the Second Language
Previous research has shown language anxiety to be associated with broad-based indices of language achievement, such as course grades. This study examined some of the more specific cognitive processes that may be involved in language acquisition in terms of a three-stage model of learning: Input, Processing, and Output. These stages were represented in a set of nine tasks that were employed to isolate and measure the language acquisition stages. …
A student's contributions to second-language learning. Part II: Affective variables
An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content
A student's contributions to second language learning. Part I: Cognitive variables
An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content
An Instrumental Motivation In Language Study: Who Says It Isn't Effective?
The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of integrative motivation and instrumental motivation on the learning of French/English vocabulary. Integrative motivation was defined in terms of a median split on scores obtained on subtests from the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery, while instrumental motivation was situationally determined in terms of monetary reward for doing well. The results demonstrated that both integrative m…
Biases resulting from the use of aggregated variables in psychology
Biases resulting from the use of aggregated variables in psychology
Perloff and Persons (1988) have recently states that the use of equal-weight indexes (aggregated variables) in regression-correlation analysis will result in biased tests of statistical significance unless the variables aggregated are extremely highly correlated. Referring to psychometric theory, this article shows that the size of the intercorrelations among variables has little bearing on the propriety of using unit weights to aggregate them in…
Language Anxiety: Its Relationship to Other Anxieties and to Processing in Native and Second Languages
This study investigated the factor structure underlying 23 scales assessing both language anxiety as well as other forms of anxiety. Three factors were obtained and identified as Social Evaluation Anxiety, State Anxiety, and Language Anxiety. Correlations were obtained between scores based on these factors and measures of short-term memory (a Digit Span test) and vocabulary production (a Thing Category test). These two measures were administered …
The affective dimension in second language programme evaluation
This article examines the affective dimension in second language programme evaluation from the perspective of the socio‐educational model of second language acquisition. While the model has developed from research on individual differences in second language achievement, it could easily be expanded to consider the explicit role played by different types of formal instructional, and possibly by informal, contexts. This would require identifying su…
Anxiety and Second-Language Learning: Toward a Theoretical Clarification
Reviews of the literature on foreign-language anxiety show a considerable amount of ambiguity arising from the conflicting results of past studies. This study attempts to show that these difficulties can be resolved given an awareness of the theoretical perspective from which this research has developed. Specifically, it was predicted that anxiety based in the language environment would be associated with language learning whereas other types of …
Second Language Learning in an Immersion Programme: Factors Influencing Acquisition and Retention
This study investigated the relations of a series of attitude, motivation and aptitude variables to the acquisition and retention of French language skills. Subjects were drawn from a sample of 105 students registered in an intensive French language summer training programme in Trois-Pistoles, Quebec, who completed a series of tests at the beginning and end of the course. A factor analysis of data from the 89 students with complete data identifie…
The Socio-Educational Model of Second-Language Learning: Assumptions, Findings, and Issues
Au criticizes the socio-educational model of second-language learning and argues that the research literature does not offer strong support for it. The present article responds to these criticisms, indicating where they are based on invalid assumptions and/or a simplistic interpretation of the model, and reviews research findings that attest to the validity of the model. It is argued that Au's criticisms are valuable, however, in that they highli…
Use of the Simple Change Score in Correlational Analyses
This article examines the simple difference score (Y-X) as used in three different correlational analyses. As discussed in this paper, this difference score is viewed as a simple change from a pretest (X) to a posttest (1Y), but the generalizations apply to any difference score of the type (Y-X). The three classes of correlational analyses considered involve the correlation of initial score (X) with change (Y-X); the correlation of another variab…
Linguistic Factors in Second-Language Loss
This study investigated the nature of the linguistic features lost in oral French over the summer vacation period by 89 English speaking Grade 9 students. These students had been studying French in a regular second-language program since Grade 6 and had completed an average of 120 hours of instruction. Global analyses revealed significant reductions in total time, speaking time, number of pauses, quantity of production and grammatical accuracy on…
Second Language Attrition: The Role of Motivation and Use
This study investigated the nature of second language (French) skills lost by grade 12 students over the course of the summer vacation, and the role played by attitudes and motivation in promoting language achievement and language maintenance. The results demonstrated that students rated many of their skills somewhat weaker after the summer vacation, but these effects were more general for items dealing with understanding skills than for speaking…
On the predictive validity of the attitude/motivation test battery
Evidence of the predictive validity of composite measures of the ‘Attitude/Motivation Test Battery’ is provided. The composite measures of Motivation, Integrativeness and Attitude Towards the Learning Situation were correlated with three criterion measures, ‘Behavioural Intention’ to pursue French study, final French grade, and a global measure of French achievement. The data were collected in six different areas of Canada over a two‐year period.…
Social Factors in Second Language Attrition1
A retrospective design was used to study the effects of attitudes, motivation and reported language use on second language attrition. Students who had been registered in an intensive six-week course in French in the province of Quebec were mailed questionnaires which asked them to rate their perceived second language skills upon completion of the course as well as their present skill levels (six months later). Attitudinal/motivational variables w…
The Role of Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning: Correlational and Experimental Considerations
This study investigated the multitrait-multimethod validity of the Attitude/ Motivation Test Battery and in addition made use of laboratory procedures to examine the role of language aptitude and attitudinal/motivational attributes on the rate of learning French vocabulary. Subjects were 170 volunteers from an introductory psychology course. The results indicated that all but two measures adapted from the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery evidence…
Aggregating Scores: To Standardize or Not to Standardize
This paper demonstrates that although aggregated standard scores can correlate substantially with aggregated raw scores, their correlations with an external criterion can differ markedly. This will occur when the variances of the components differ and these differences are related to the correlations of the components with the criterion
Learning Another Language: A True Social Psychological Experiment
In this article I have outlined some reasons why the investigation of second language acquisition is important, and I have presented a socio- educational model that I believe incorporates the major individual difference variables underlying the language learning process. Research relevant to this model is then presented, with particular attention devoted to a direct test of the underlying causal model. Three deductions deriving from the model are…
Evaluational reactions to spoken languages
Regarding language as an identifying feature of a national or cultural group, English and French students were asked to evaluate English-speaking and French-speaking speakers. Bilinguists were used who recorded passages in both French and English. Ss rated on the basis of traits related to desirabil
The Subtle Effects of Language Anxiety on Cognitive Processing in the Second Language
Previous research has shown language anxiety to be associated with broad-based indices of language achievement, such as course grades. This study examined some of the more specific cognitive processes that may be involved in language acquisition in terms of a three-stage model of learning: Input, Processing, and Output. These stages were represented in a set of nine tasks that were employed to isolate and measure the language acquisition stages. …
Anxiety and Second-Language Learning: Toward a Theoretical Clarification
Reviews of the literature on foreign-language anxiety show a considerable amount of ambiguity arising from the conflicting results of past studies. This study attempts to show that these difficulties can be resolved given an awareness of the theoretical perspective from which this research has developed. Specifically, it was predicted that anxiety based in the language environment would be associated with language learning whereas other types of …
Attitudes, Motivation, and Second Language Learning: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Conducted by Gardner and Associates
This meta-analysis investigates the relationship of second language achievement to five attitude/motivation variables from Gardner's socioeducational model: integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, motivation, integrative orientation, and instrumental orientation. These relationships were examined in studies conducted by Gardner and associates using the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery and various measures of second language achi…
A student's contributions to second-language learning. Part II: Affective variables
An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content
Language Anxiety: Its Relationship to Other Anxieties and to Processing in Native and Second Languages
This study investigated the factor structure underlying 23 scales assessing both language anxiety as well as other forms of anxiety. Three factors were obtained and identified as Social Evaluation Anxiety, State Anxiety, and Language Anxiety. Correlations were obtained between scores based on these factors and measures of short-term memory (a Digit Span test) and vocabulary production (a Thing Category test). These two measures were administered …
Attitudinal and cognitive aspects of intensive study of a second language
Integrative Motivation: Changes During a Year-Long Intermediate-Level Language Course
The socioeducational model of second Language acquisition postulates that Language learning is a dynamic process in which affective variable influence Language achievement and achievement and experiences in Language learning can influences some affective variables. Five classes of variable are emphasized: integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, motivation, Language anxiety, and instrumental orientation. The present study of a 1-…
A student's contributions to second language learning. Part I: Cognitive variables
An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content
Learning Another Language: A True Social Psychological Experiment
In this article I have outlined some reasons why the investigation of second language acquisition is important, and I have presented a socio- educational model that I believe incorporates the major individual difference variables underlying the language learning process. Research relevant to this model is then presented, with particular attention devoted to a direct test of the underlying causal model. Three deductions deriving from the model are…
Intensive Second Language Study: Effects on Attitudes, Motivation and French Achievement1
This study examined changes in students' attitudes, motivation and French achievement during a five-week, residential, summer program. Sixty-two students were administered a battery of attitude and motivation tests as well as a test of oral French proficiency prior to, and upon completion of the course. In addition, both teacher-ratings and self-ratings of French language skills were collected at several time periods during the course. Data were …
The Socio-Educational Model of Second-Language Learning: Assumptions, Findings, and Issues
Au criticizes the socio-educational model of second-language learning and argues that the research literature does not offer strong support for it. The present article responds to these criticisms, indicating where they are based on invalid assumptions and/or a simplistic interpretation of the model, and reviews research findings that attest to the validity of the model. It is argued that Au's criticisms are valuable, however, in that they highli…
The Socio-Educational Model of Second Language Acquisition: An Investigation Using Lisrel Causal Modeling
Linear Structural Relations analysis (LISREL) was used to examine the adequacy of a causal model of second language acquisition. A total of 18 variables were investigated using 140 students enrolled in one of two first year university French courses in a unilingual anglophone city. The model under investigation linked cultural beliefs, attitudes, motivation, situational anxiety, and prior achievement to proficiency in a second language. The resul…
On the Validity of Affective Variables in Second Language Acquisition: Conceptual, Contextual, and Statistical Considerations 1
This article reviews the proposition that achievement in a second language is related to attitudinal/motivational characteristics of the students. It uses as its starting point articles by Oller and Perkins, and demonstrates that their generalizations that such relationships are weak, and that they are due to the spurious effects of verbal intelligence and language proficiency are not founded in fact. Statistical, contextual, and conceptual issue…
Home Background Characteristics and Second Language Learning
Some researchers investigating second language acquisition argue that the sociocultural milieu of the learner influences individual difference variables involved in learning a second language. This study investigated this link by assessing the linguistic nature of the home community, respondents' recollections of early experiences in second language learning, and their current attitudes and beliefs about language learning and bilingualism. The sa…
Second Language Attrition: The Role of Motivation and Use
This study investigated the nature of second language (French) skills lost by grade 12 students over the course of the summer vacation, and the role played by attitudes and motivation in promoting language achievement and language maintenance. The results demonstrated that students rated many of their skills somewhat weaker after the summer vacation, but these effects were more general for items dealing with understanding skills than for speaking…
The Role of Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning: Correlational and Experimental Considerations
This study investigated the multitrait-multimethod validity of the Attitude/ Motivation Test Battery and in addition made use of laboratory procedures to examine the role of language aptitude and attitudinal/motivational attributes on the rate of learning French vocabulary. Subjects were 170 volunteers from an introductory psychology course. The results indicated that all but two measures adapted from the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery evidence…
Intensive Second Language Study in a Bicultural Milieu: An Investigation of Attitudes, Motivation and Language Proficiency1
The purpose of this investigation was to investigate the relation of a series of attitudinal/motivational variables to achievement in French of samples of Canadian and American adult students in an intensive French language program, and to assess the effects of the program on attitudes, motivation, and French proficiency. The results demonstrated an association between an attitudinal/motivational factor, referred to as an integrative motive, and …
A Causal Model of Spanish Immigrant Adaptation in Canada
This study was conducted to investigate the role of several sociocultural variables involved in the acculturation process and their relation to second language learning and well-being. Previous studies have supported several of the proposed relationships between these variables; however, there is a need for integrative research assessing the relationships among all of them simultaneously. The sample consisted of 248 Spanish immigrants who complet…
Motivation and Attitudes Towards Learning Languages in Multicultural Classrooms
This study investigated the effect of the cultural background of immigrant children on affective variables in learning three different languages. Participants were students in secondary multicultural classrooms in Spain. A total of 114 students, aged 12 to 16, answered a questionnaire based on Gardner's Attitude = Motivation Test Battery assessing their attitudes, motivation and anxiety towards learning Catalan, Spanish and English. In addition, …
Ethnic stereotypes: Determinants in children and their parents
Attitudes and Motivation: Their Role in Second-Language Acquisition
My intent in this paper is to review some of the research we have conducted which indicates just how dynamic and potent the role of the parent might be in the language-learning situation. I should say at the outset that most of our research has not dealt with ESL programs, but that nonetheless the phenomenon we have observed would seem as relevant to the ESL program as to any other second-language situation. I think it is meaningful to distinguis…
Social Factors in Second Language Attrition1
A retrospective design was used to study the effects of attitudes, motivation and reported language use on second language attrition. Students who had been registered in an intensive six-week course in French in the province of Quebec were mailed questionnaires which asked them to rate their perceived second language skills upon completion of the course as well as their present skill levels (six months later). Attitudinal/motivational variables w…
On “Gardner on Affect: A Discussion of Validity as It Relates to the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery: A Response From Gardner 1
Second Language Learning in an Immersion Programme: Factors Influencing Acquisition and Retention
This study investigated the relations of a series of attitude, motivation and aptitude variables to the acquisition and retention of French language skills. Subjects were drawn from a sample of 105 students registered in an intensive French language summer training programme in Trois-Pistoles, Quebec, who completed a series of tests at the beginning and end of the course. A factor analysis of data from the 89 students with complete data identifie…
Evaluational reactions to spoken languages
Regarding language as an identifying feature of a national or cultural group, English and French students were asked to evaluate English-speaking and French-speaking speakers. Bilinguists were used who recorded passages in both French and English. Ss rated on the basis of traits related to desirabil
Attitudinal and cognitive aspects of intensive study of a second language
A Study of the Roles of Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning
Attitudes and Motivation: Their Role in Second-Language Acquisition
My intent in this paper is to review some of the research we have conducted which indicates just how dynamic and potent the role of the parent might be in the language-learning situation. I should say at the outset that most of our research has not dealt with ESL programs, but that nonetheless the phenomenon we have observed would seem as relevant to the ESL program as to any other second-language situation. I think it is meaningful to distinguis…
Personal Values and the Meaningfulness of Value-Related Words
In a factorial design, it was shown that Ss produce more responses to their high-value area label than to their low-value area label in a continuous word-association task, where value importance was measured by the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values. It was also shown that the commonality and number of responses decrease over time. Possible reasons for the failure to find a significant effect for associational fluency are discussed
Ethnic stereotypes: Determinants in children and their parents
Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning
Intensive Second Language Study: Effects on Attitudes, Motivation and French Achievement1
This study examined changes in students' attitudes, motivation and French achievement during a five-week, residential, summer program. Sixty-two students were administered a battery of attitude and motivation tests as well as a test of oral French proficiency prior to, and upon completion of the course. In addition, both teacher-ratings and self-ratings of French language skills were collected at several time periods during the course. Data were …
Intensive Second Language Study in a Bicultural Milieu: An Investigation of Attitudes, Motivation and Language Proficiency1
The purpose of this investigation was to investigate the relation of a series of attitudinal/motivational variables to achievement in French of samples of Canadian and American adult students in an intensive French language program, and to assess the effects of the program on attitudes, motivation, and French proficiency. The results demonstrated an association between an attitudinal/motivational factor, referred to as an integrative motive, and …
On the Validity of Affective Variables in Second Language Acquisition: Conceptual, Contextual, and Statistical Considerations 1
This article reviews the proposition that achievement in a second language is related to attitudinal/motivational characteristics of the students. It uses as its starting point articles by Oller and Perkins, and demonstrates that their generalizations that such relationships are weak, and that they are due to the spurious effects of verbal intelligence and language proficiency are not founded in fact. Statistical, contextual, and conceptual issue…
On “Gardner on Affect: A Discussion of Validity as It Relates to the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery: A Response From Gardner 1
Learning Another Language: A True Social Psychological Experiment
In this article I have outlined some reasons why the investigation of second language acquisition is important, and I have presented a socio- educational model that I believe incorporates the major individual difference variables underlying the language learning process. Research relevant to this model is then presented, with particular attention devoted to a direct test of the underlying causal model. Three deductions deriving from the model are…
The Socio-Educational Model of Second Language Acquisition: An Investigation Using Lisrel Causal Modeling
Linear Structural Relations analysis (LISREL) was used to examine the adequacy of a causal model of second language acquisition. A total of 18 variables were investigated using 140 students enrolled in one of two first year university French courses in a unilingual anglophone city. The model under investigation linked cultural beliefs, attitudes, motivation, situational anxiety, and prior achievement to proficiency in a second language. The resul…
Aggregating Scores: To Standardize or Not to Standardize
This paper demonstrates that although aggregated standard scores can correlate substantially with aggregated raw scores, their correlations with an external criterion can differ markedly. This will occur when the variances of the components differ and these differences are related to the correlations of the components with the criterion
On the predictive validity of the attitude/motivation test battery
Evidence of the predictive validity of composite measures of the ‘Attitude/Motivation Test Battery’ is provided. The composite measures of Motivation, Integrativeness and Attitude Towards the Learning Situation were correlated with three criterion measures, ‘Behavioural Intention’ to pursue French study, final French grade, and a global measure of French achievement. The data were collected in six different areas of Canada over a two‐year period.…
Social Factors in Second Language Attrition1
A retrospective design was used to study the effects of attitudes, motivation and reported language use on second language attrition. Students who had been registered in an intensive six-week course in French in the province of Quebec were mailed questionnaires which asked them to rate their perceived second language skills upon completion of the course as well as their present skill levels (six months later). Attitudinal/motivational variables w…
The Role of Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning: Correlational and Experimental Considerations
This study investigated the multitrait-multimethod validity of the Attitude/ Motivation Test Battery and in addition made use of laboratory procedures to examine the role of language aptitude and attitudinal/motivational attributes on the rate of learning French vocabulary. Subjects were 170 volunteers from an introductory psychology course. The results indicated that all but two measures adapted from the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery evidence…
Use of the Simple Change Score in Correlational Analyses
This article examines the simple difference score (Y-X) as used in three different correlational analyses. As discussed in this paper, this difference score is viewed as a simple change from a pretest (X) to a posttest (1Y), but the generalizations apply to any difference score of the type (Y-X). The three classes of correlational analyses considered involve the correlation of initial score (X) with change (Y-X); the correlation of another variab…
Linguistic Factors in Second-Language Loss
This study investigated the nature of the linguistic features lost in oral French over the summer vacation period by 89 English speaking Grade 9 students. These students had been studying French in a regular second-language program since Grade 6 and had completed an average of 120 hours of instruction. Global analyses revealed significant reductions in total time, speaking time, number of pauses, quantity of production and grammatical accuracy on…
Second Language Attrition: The Role of Motivation and Use
This study investigated the nature of second language (French) skills lost by grade 12 students over the course of the summer vacation, and the role played by attitudes and motivation in promoting language achievement and language maintenance. The results demonstrated that students rated many of their skills somewhat weaker after the summer vacation, but these effects were more general for items dealing with understanding skills than for speaking…
The Socio-Educational Model of Second-Language Learning: Assumptions, Findings, and Issues
Au criticizes the socio-educational model of second-language learning and argues that the research literature does not offer strong support for it. The present article responds to these criticisms, indicating where they are based on invalid assumptions and/or a simplistic interpretation of the model, and reviews research findings that attest to the validity of the model. It is argued that Au's criticisms are valuable, however, in that they highli…
Anxiety and Second-Language Learning: Toward a Theoretical Clarification
Reviews of the literature on foreign-language anxiety show a considerable amount of ambiguity arising from the conflicting results of past studies. This study attempts to show that these difficulties can be resolved given an awareness of the theoretical perspective from which this research has developed. Specifically, it was predicted that anxiety based in the language environment would be associated with language learning whereas other types of …
Second Language Learning in an Immersion Programme: Factors Influencing Acquisition and Retention
This study investigated the relations of a series of attitude, motivation and aptitude variables to the acquisition and retention of French language skills. Subjects were drawn from a sample of 105 students registered in an intensive French language summer training programme in Trois-Pistoles, Quebec, who completed a series of tests at the beginning and end of the course. A factor analysis of data from the 89 students with complete data identifie…
The affective dimension in second language programme evaluation
This article examines the affective dimension in second language programme evaluation from the perspective of the socio‐educational model of second language acquisition. While the model has developed from research on individual differences in second language achievement, it could easily be expanded to consider the explicit role played by different types of formal instructional, and possibly by informal, contexts. This would require identifying su…
An Instrumental Motivation In Language Study: Who Says It Isn't Effective?
The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of integrative motivation and instrumental motivation on the learning of French/English vocabulary. Integrative motivation was defined in terms of a median split on scores obtained on subtests from the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery, while instrumental motivation was situationally determined in terms of monetary reward for doing well. The results demonstrated that both integrative m…
Psychology (37 works) · EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning (29 works) · Linguistics (26 works) · Mathematics education (22 works) · Social Psychology (19 works) · Developmental psychology (17 works) · Multilingual Education and Policy (17 works) · Second Language Learning and Teaching (17 works) · Cognitive psychology (15 works) · Computer Science (12 works)