Martin Hällsten
Biographic Data
| ID | 91680 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Martin Hällsten |
| GIVEN NAMES | Martin |
| FAMILY NAME | Hällsten |
| SIGNATURE | HÄLLSTEN M |
| AFFILIATIONS | Stockholm University |
| ORCID | 0000-0003-3660-9996 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 31 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 384 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 31 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2010 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 11 |
Sibling correlations and SES overlaps in late-career Swedes
To what extent is socioeconomic standing (SES) uni- or multidimensional? SES is typically measured using variables such as education, occupation, income, and, more recently, wealth, but do these variables reflect the same or different hierarchies? This paper uses the methodology of Karlson and Birkelund (2025) to study how sibling correlations, as a measure of the role of family background, overlap across SES dimensions. Four dimensions of SES ar…
A caution on sibling comparisons in studying effects of the rearing environment
Recent studies use sibling fixed effects to estimate the influence of the family environment on children, a practice we call the 'discordant family design'. These studies suffer from a disconnect between the use of within-family variation, on the one hand, and relevant theories which mostly refer to variation between families on the other. In addition, reverse causality, within-family confounding, selection into identification, and measurement er…
Started From the Bottom, Now We’re (Working) Here: Workplace Segregation by Social Class Origin
Segregation is a pervasive social phenomenon that separates individuals across social settings. Workplaces, as key hubs of the labor market, are not only central to economic outcomes but also potential sites for cross-cutting social ties. Yet workplace segregation can exacerbate inequality and weaken social cohesion. Existing research has largely examined highly visible categories such as race and ethnicity, while much less is known about segrega…
Are upper-secondary track decisions risky? Evidence from Sweden on the assumptions of risk-aversion models
Relative risk aversion (RRA) models explain social class inequalities in education with risk avoidance, i.e., the risky choice assumption (RCA). This assumption concerns risks related to more ambitious educational choices and has been subject to little explicit scrutiny. In this paper, we test whether or not vocational education is a safety net that protects from labor market marginalization. We present an empirical assessment of upper-secondary …
Author Correction: Within-job gender pay inequality in 15 countries
Ups and downs in finance, ups without downs in inequality
The upswing in finance in recent decades has led to rising inequality, but do downswings in finance lead to a symmetric decline in inequality? We analyze the asymmetry of the effect of ups and downs in finance, and the effect of increased capital requirements and the bonus cap on national earnings inequality. We use administrative employer-employee-linked data from 1990 to 2019 for 12 countries and data from bank reports, from 2009 to 2017 in 13 …
The Shadow of Peasant Past: Seven Generations of Inequality Persistence in Northern Sweden
The authors use administrative data linked to parish records from northern Sweden to study how persistent inequality is across multiple generations in education, occupation, and wealth, going from historical to contemporary time. The data cover seven generations and allow the authors to follow ancestors of individuals living in Sweden around the new millennium back more than 200 years, covering the mid-18th century to the 21st century. In a sampl…
Wealth as One of the “Big Four” SES Dimensions in Intergenerational Transmissions
Recent scholarship on mobility has increasingly incorporated wealth. We ask if wealth brings anything new to mobility research or is just a standard socioeconomic status (SES) dimension in disguise. We exploit Swedish administrative registers, which contain rich SES measures over individuals’ lives for both parents’ and children’s generations. Using sibling correlations to estimate a baseline of shared family background influence, we then perform…
Does the impact of parental death vary by parental socioeconomic status? A study of children's educational and occupational attainment
Objective We examine whether parental death differentially affects educational and occupational attainment by the socioeconomic status of the parent who dies and the socioeconomic status of the surviving parent and extended kin. Background An extensive literature has explored the main effect of parental death on offspring attainment, but few studies have examined socioeconomic differentials in the impact of parental death. Understanding the poten…
Within-job gender pay inequality in 15 countries
Extant research on the gender pay gap suggests that men and women who do the same work for the same employer receive similar pay, so that processes sorting people into jobs are thought to account for the vast majority of the pay gap. Data that can identify women and men who do the same work for the same employer are rare, and research informing this crucial aspect of gender differences in pay is several decades old and from a limited number of co…
Intergenerational Educational Mobility and Life Course Economic Trajectories in a Social Democratic Welfare State
We test a prediction of cumulative advantage theory about enduring life cycle effects of educational mobility on earnings. We identify four mobility groups by cross-classifying parental education (degree/no degree) by their offspring (degree/no degree) and study the long-term economic consequences of intergenerational educational mobility. Data for this study come from Swedish population registers covering birth cohorts between 1953 and 1955. We …
The Scaling of Occupations
Occupation is a central dimension of social stratification, but it lacks a manifest and intuitive measurement scale. This entry discusses the common scales and their limitations
Ampleur et évolution de la prime salariale financière
Nous mesurons l’ampleur et l’évolution de la prime salariale liée à un emploi en finance. Dans treize pays développés, les salaires, notamment les hauts salaires, ont augmenté dans ce secteur à un rythme soutenu pendant les années 1990 et 2000, contribuant fortement à l’augmentation de la part du top 1 % national et par conséquent aux inégalités. L’explication de cet écart par des différences de talent ne suffit pas à en rendre compte. En France,…
Rising between-workplace inequalities in high-income countries
Significance Understanding the causes of rising inequality is of concern in many countries. Using administrative data, we find that the share of inequality that is between workplaces is growing in 12 of 14 countries examined, and in no country has it fallen. Countries with declining employment protections see growth in both between- and within-workplace inequalities, but this impact is stronger for between-workplace inequalities. These results su…
The End of Dominance? Evaluating Measures of Socio-Economic Background in Stratification Research
We analyse how to best combine information on both parents' socio-economic status (SES) in intergenerational research. This can be done by utilizing separate measures for each parent, taking averages over parents, modelling interactions, or only using the highest value across parents-the latter commonly referred to as the dominance approach. Our brief literature review suggests that (i) the dominance tradition is widespread, although seldom theor…
Occupational status and organizations: Variation in occupational hierarchies across Swedish workplaces
A foundational claim in social stratification research is that occupational hierarchies are largely invariant across societies, a phenomenon known as the Treiman constant. However, recent research in social stratification has focused on the role of local social spaces in generating inequalities, casting doubt on the validity of the idea of a universally invariant occupational hierarchy. In this paper, we focus on organizations as a local space in…
Multiple dimensions of social background and horizontal educational attainment in Sweden
We follow Swedish cohorts born between 1976 and 1984 through their educational career and analyze how different dimensions of parents’ socio-economic standing (SES) in education, occupation, income, and wealth structure horizontal attainment in secondary tracks and tertiary fields. Our results show that there is strong horizontal segregation by parents’ SES. However, the influence of social background dimensions on educational attainment is not u…
The acculturation in Sweden of adolescents of Iranian and Yugoslavian origin
Ethnic acculturation in a sample of 19-year-old individuals of Yugoslavian and Iranian origin in contemporary Sweden was studied, with a focus on how acculturation is contingent on social structure and social context. Acculturation was measured as orientation to the majority and the parental culture of origin. The results suggest, first, that the two dimensions are weakly but positively correlated, meaning that acculturation identity does not inv…
Birth Order and College Major in Sweden
Previous research on birth order has consistently shown that later-borns have lower educational attainment than first-borns, however it is not known whether there are birth order patterns in college major. Given empirical evidence that parents disproportionately invest in first-born children, there are likely to be birth order patterns attributable to differences in both opportunities and preferences, related to ability, human capital specializat…
Demographic and Educational Success of Lineages in Northern Sweden
Grand Advantage: Family Wealth and Grandchildren’s Educational Achievement in Sweden
We study the role of family wealth for children's educational achievement using novel Swedish register data. In particular, we focus on the relationship between grandparents' wealth and their grandchildren's educational achievement. Doing so allows us to reliably establish the independent role of wealth in contributing to long-term inequalities in opportunity. We use regression models with extensive controls to account for observed socioeconomic …
Is Education a Risky Investment? The Scarring Effect of University Dropout in Sweden
A number of theoretical models of educational decision-making assume that education is a risky investment, but the empirical evidence of those risks is scant. This article analyses the link between educational failure and future adverse outcomes using Swedish register data. Drawing on the concept of risk inherent in the Breen-Goldthorpe model of educational decision-making-that staying on in school and failing leads to downward mobility-this arti…
Social capital, friendship networks, and youth unemployment
Where Do Immigrants Fare Worse? Modeling Workplace Wage Gap Variation with Longitudinal Employer-Employee Data
The authors propose a strategy for observing and explaining workplace variance in categorically linked inequalities. Using Swedish economy-wide linked employer-employee panel data, the authors examine variation in workplace wage inequalities between native Swedes and non-Western immigrants. Consistent with relational inequality theory, the authors' findings are that immigrant-native wage gaps vary dramatically across workplaces, even net of stron…
The effects of specific occupations in position generator measures of social capital
Grand Advantage: Family Wealth and Grandchildren’s Educational Achievement in Sweden
We study the role of family wealth for children's educational achievement using novel Swedish register data. In particular, we focus on the relationship between grandparents' wealth and their grandchildren's educational achievement. Doing so allows us to reliably establish the independent role of wealth in contributing to long-term inequalities in opportunity. We use regression models with extensive controls to account for observed socioeconomic …
Inequality across three and four generations in Egalitarian Sweden: 1St and 2nd Cousin Correlations in Socio-Economic Outcomes
The class‐origin wage gap: Heterogeneity in Education and Variations Across Market Segments
This paper uses unique population‐level matched employer–employee data on monthly wages to analyse class‐origin wage gaps in the Swedish labour market. Education is the primary mediator of class origin advantages in the labour market, but mobility research often only considers the vertical dimension of education. When one uses an unusually detailed measure of education in a horizontal dimension, the wage gap between individuals of advantaged and …
The Structure of Educational Decision Making and Consequences for Inequality: A Swedish Test Case
Class differences in educational decision making are important for inequality. A unique Swedish population-level database of university applications and individuals’ ranking of different programs is used to analyze class differences in preferences for different program characteristics. Compared to individuals from service class backgrounds, individuals from manual labor class backgrounds choose programs of shorter duration with lower grade point …
The End of Dominance? Evaluating Measures of Socio-Economic Background in Stratification Research
We analyse how to best combine information on both parents' socio-economic status (SES) in intergenerational research. This can be done by utilizing separate measures for each parent, taking averages over parents, modelling interactions, or only using the highest value across parents-the latter commonly referred to as the dominance approach. Our brief literature review suggests that (i) the dominance tradition is widespread, although seldom theor…
No way back up from ratcheting down? A critique of the 'microclass' approach to the analysis of social mobility
Microclasses', detailed occupational groups, have recently been suggested as being the basis of research in social stratification; occupations represent 'real' social groups in contrast to the purely 'nominal' categories of either 'big class' schemata or socio-economic status scales. The microclass approach in social mobility research has been applied in a recent paper, the authors claiming to show that a strong propensity exists for intergenerat…
Interethnic Friendship, Trust, and Tolerance: Findings from Two North Iraqi Cities
This article examines correlates of social trust and tolerance within a high-violence context. The authors study first the extent to which friendship ties that cross ethnic boundaries are associated with specific interaction spaces (neighborhoods, workplaces, civil society organizations, and political parties) and, second, the extent to which interethnic friendships are associated with trust and tolerance. Using individual-level data () on intere…
Multiple dimensions of social background and horizontal educational attainment in Sweden
We follow Swedish cohorts born between 1976 and 1984 through their educational career and analyze how different dimensions of parents’ socio-economic standing (SES) in education, occupation, income, and wealth structure horizontal attainment in secondary tracks and tertiary fields. Our results show that there is strong horizontal segregation by parents’ SES. However, the influence of social background dimensions on educational attainment is not u…
Where Do Immigrants Fare Worse? Modeling Workplace Wage Gap Variation with Longitudinal Employer-Employee Data
The authors propose a strategy for observing and explaining workplace variance in categorically linked inequalities. Using Swedish economy-wide linked employer-employee panel data, the authors examine variation in workplace wage inequalities between native Swedes and non-Western immigrants. Consistent with relational inequality theory, the authors' findings are that immigrant-native wage gaps vary dramatically across workplaces, even net of stron…
Social capital, friendship networks, and youth unemployment
Crime as a Price of Inequality: The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes
We examine the gap in registered crime between the children of immigrants and the children of native Swedes. We follow all individuals who completed compulsory schooling during the period 1990–93 in the Stockholm Metropolitan area (N = 63,462) up to their thirties and analyse how family of origin and neighbourhood segregation during adolescence, subsequent to arriving in Sweden, influence the gap in recorded crimes. For males, we are able to expl…
Within-job gender pay inequality in 15 countries
Extant research on the gender pay gap suggests that men and women who do the same work for the same employer receive similar pay, so that processes sorting people into jobs are thought to account for the vast majority of the pay gap. Data that can identify women and men who do the same work for the same employer are rare, and research informing this crucial aspect of gender differences in pay is several decades old and from a limited number of co…
Demographic and Educational Success of Lineages in Northern Sweden
The Shadow of Peasant Past: Seven Generations of Inequality Persistence in Northern Sweden
The authors use administrative data linked to parish records from northern Sweden to study how persistent inequality is across multiple generations in education, occupation, and wealth, going from historical to contemporary time. The data cover seven generations and allow the authors to follow ancestors of individuals living in Sweden around the new millennium back more than 200 years, covering the mid-18th century to the 21st century. In a sampl…
The acculturation in Sweden of adolescents of Iranian and Yugoslavian origin
Ethnic acculturation in a sample of 19-year-old individuals of Yugoslavian and Iranian origin in contemporary Sweden was studied, with a focus on how acculturation is contingent on social structure and social context. Acculturation was measured as orientation to the majority and the parental culture of origin. The results suggest, first, that the two dimensions are weakly but positively correlated, meaning that acculturation identity does not inv…
Intergenerational Educational Mobility and Life Course Economic Trajectories in a Social Democratic Welfare State
We test a prediction of cumulative advantage theory about enduring life cycle effects of educational mobility on earnings. We identify four mobility groups by cross-classifying parental education (degree/no degree) by their offspring (degree/no degree) and study the long-term economic consequences of intergenerational educational mobility. Data for this study come from Swedish population registers covering birth cohorts between 1953 and 1955. We …
Ups and downs in finance, ups without downs in inequality
The upswing in finance in recent decades has led to rising inequality, but do downswings in finance lead to a symmetric decline in inequality? We analyze the asymmetry of the effect of ups and downs in finance, and the effect of increased capital requirements and the bonus cap on national earnings inequality. We use administrative employer-employee-linked data from 1990 to 2019 for 12 countries and data from bank reports, from 2009 to 2017 in 13 …
Occupational status and organizations: Variation in occupational hierarchies across Swedish workplaces
A foundational claim in social stratification research is that occupational hierarchies are largely invariant across societies, a phenomenon known as the Treiman constant. However, recent research in social stratification has focused on the role of local social spaces in generating inequalities, casting doubt on the validity of the idea of a universally invariant occupational hierarchy. In this paper, we focus on organizations as a local space in…
A caution on sibling comparisons in studying effects of the rearing environment
Recent studies use sibling fixed effects to estimate the influence of the family environment on children, a practice we call the 'discordant family design'. These studies suffer from a disconnect between the use of within-family variation, on the one hand, and relevant theories which mostly refer to variation between families on the other. In addition, reverse causality, within-family confounding, selection into identification, and measurement er…
Are upper-secondary track decisions risky? Evidence from Sweden on the assumptions of risk-aversion models
Relative risk aversion (RRA) models explain social class inequalities in education with risk avoidance, i.e., the risky choice assumption (RCA). This assumption concerns risks related to more ambitious educational choices and has been subject to little explicit scrutiny. In this paper, we test whether or not vocational education is a safety net that protects from labor market marginalization. We present an empirical assessment of upper-secondary …
Author Correction: Within-job gender pay inequality in 15 countries
The Structure of Educational Decision Making and Consequences for Inequality: A Swedish Test Case
Class differences in educational decision making are important for inequality. A unique Swedish population-level database of university applications and individuals’ ranking of different programs is used to analyze class differences in preferences for different program characteristics. Compared to individuals from service class backgrounds, individuals from manual labor class backgrounds choose programs of shorter duration with lower grade point …
No way back up from ratcheting down? A critique of the 'microclass' approach to the analysis of social mobility
Microclasses', detailed occupational groups, have recently been suggested as being the basis of research in social stratification; occupations represent 'real' social groups in contrast to the purely 'nominal' categories of either 'big class' schemata or socio-economic status scales. The microclass approach in social mobility research has been applied in a recent paper, the authors claiming to show that a strong propensity exists for intergenerat…
Inequality across three and four generations in Egalitarian Sweden: 1St and 2nd Cousin Correlations in Socio-Economic Outcomes
Crime as a Price of Inequality: The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes
We examine the gap in registered crime between the children of immigrants and the children of native Swedes. We follow all individuals who completed compulsory schooling during the period 1990–93 in the Stockholm Metropolitan area (N = 63,462) up to their thirties and analyse how family of origin and neighbourhood segregation during adolescence, subsequent to arriving in Sweden, influence the gap in recorded crimes. For males, we are able to expl…
The class‐origin wage gap: Heterogeneity in Education and Variations Across Market Segments
This paper uses unique population‐level matched employer–employee data on monthly wages to analyse class‐origin wage gaps in the Swedish labour market. Education is the primary mediator of class origin advantages in the labour market, but mobility research often only considers the vertical dimension of education. When one uses an unusually detailed measure of education in a horizontal dimension, the wage gap between individuals of advantaged and …
Interethnic Friendship, Trust, and Tolerance: Findings from Two North Iraqi Cities
This article examines correlates of social trust and tolerance within a high-violence context. The authors study first the extent to which friendship ties that cross ethnic boundaries are associated with specific interaction spaces (neighborhoods, workplaces, civil society organizations, and political parties) and, second, the extent to which interethnic friendships are associated with trust and tolerance. Using individual-level data () on intere…
The effects of specific occupations in position generator measures of social capital
Where Do Immigrants Fare Worse? Modeling Workplace Wage Gap Variation with Longitudinal Employer-Employee Data
The authors propose a strategy for observing and explaining workplace variance in categorically linked inequalities. Using Swedish economy-wide linked employer-employee panel data, the authors examine variation in workplace wage inequalities between native Swedes and non-Western immigrants. Consistent with relational inequality theory, the authors' findings are that immigrant-native wage gaps vary dramatically across workplaces, even net of stron…
Birth Order and College Major in Sweden
Previous research on birth order has consistently shown that later-borns have lower educational attainment than first-borns, however it is not known whether there are birth order patterns in college major. Given empirical evidence that parents disproportionately invest in first-born children, there are likely to be birth order patterns attributable to differences in both opportunities and preferences, related to ability, human capital specializat…
Demographic and Educational Success of Lineages in Northern Sweden
Grand Advantage: Family Wealth and Grandchildren’s Educational Achievement in Sweden
We study the role of family wealth for children's educational achievement using novel Swedish register data. In particular, we focus on the relationship between grandparents' wealth and their grandchildren's educational achievement. Doing so allows us to reliably establish the independent role of wealth in contributing to long-term inequalities in opportunity. We use regression models with extensive controls to account for observed socioeconomic …
Is Education a Risky Investment? The Scarring Effect of University Dropout in Sweden
A number of theoretical models of educational decision-making assume that education is a risky investment, but the empirical evidence of those risks is scant. This article analyses the link between educational failure and future adverse outcomes using Swedish register data. Drawing on the concept of risk inherent in the Breen-Goldthorpe model of educational decision-making-that staying on in school and failing leads to downward mobility-this arti…
Social capital, friendship networks, and youth unemployment
Multiple dimensions of social background and horizontal educational attainment in Sweden
We follow Swedish cohorts born between 1976 and 1984 through their educational career and analyze how different dimensions of parents’ socio-economic standing (SES) in education, occupation, income, and wealth structure horizontal attainment in secondary tracks and tertiary fields. Our results show that there is strong horizontal segregation by parents’ SES. However, the influence of social background dimensions on educational attainment is not u…
The acculturation in Sweden of adolescents of Iranian and Yugoslavian origin
Ethnic acculturation in a sample of 19-year-old individuals of Yugoslavian and Iranian origin in contemporary Sweden was studied, with a focus on how acculturation is contingent on social structure and social context. Acculturation was measured as orientation to the majority and the parental culture of origin. The results suggest, first, that the two dimensions are weakly but positively correlated, meaning that acculturation identity does not inv…
Occupational status and organizations: Variation in occupational hierarchies across Swedish workplaces
A foundational claim in social stratification research is that occupational hierarchies are largely invariant across societies, a phenomenon known as the Treiman constant. However, recent research in social stratification has focused on the role of local social spaces in generating inequalities, casting doubt on the validity of the idea of a universally invariant occupational hierarchy. In this paper, we focus on organizations as a local space in…
Rising between-workplace inequalities in high-income countries
Significance Understanding the causes of rising inequality is of concern in many countries. Using administrative data, we find that the share of inequality that is between workplaces is growing in 12 of 14 countries examined, and in no country has it fallen. Countries with declining employment protections see growth in both between- and within-workplace inequalities, but this impact is stronger for between-workplace inequalities. These results su…
The End of Dominance? Evaluating Measures of Socio-Economic Background in Stratification Research
We analyse how to best combine information on both parents' socio-economic status (SES) in intergenerational research. This can be done by utilizing separate measures for each parent, taking averages over parents, modelling interactions, or only using the highest value across parents-the latter commonly referred to as the dominance approach. Our brief literature review suggests that (i) the dominance tradition is widespread, although seldom theor…
The Scaling of Occupations
Occupation is a central dimension of social stratification, but it lacks a manifest and intuitive measurement scale. This entry discusses the common scales and their limitations
Ampleur et évolution de la prime salariale financière
Nous mesurons l’ampleur et l’évolution de la prime salariale liée à un emploi en finance. Dans treize pays développés, les salaires, notamment les hauts salaires, ont augmenté dans ce secteur à un rythme soutenu pendant les années 1990 et 2000, contribuant fortement à l’augmentation de la part du top 1 % national et par conséquent aux inégalités. L’explication de cet écart par des différences de talent ne suffit pas à en rendre compte. En France,…
Wealth as One of the “Big Four” SES Dimensions in Intergenerational Transmissions
Recent scholarship on mobility has increasingly incorporated wealth. We ask if wealth brings anything new to mobility research or is just a standard socioeconomic status (SES) dimension in disguise. We exploit Swedish administrative registers, which contain rich SES measures over individuals’ lives for both parents’ and children’s generations. Using sibling correlations to estimate a baseline of shared family background influence, we then perform…
Does the impact of parental death vary by parental socioeconomic status? A study of children's educational and occupational attainment
Objective We examine whether parental death differentially affects educational and occupational attainment by the socioeconomic status of the parent who dies and the socioeconomic status of the surviving parent and extended kin. Background An extensive literature has explored the main effect of parental death on offspring attainment, but few studies have examined socioeconomic differentials in the impact of parental death. Understanding the poten…
Within-job gender pay inequality in 15 countries
Extant research on the gender pay gap suggests that men and women who do the same work for the same employer receive similar pay, so that processes sorting people into jobs are thought to account for the vast majority of the pay gap. Data that can identify women and men who do the same work for the same employer are rare, and research informing this crucial aspect of gender differences in pay is several decades old and from a limited number of co…
Intergenerational Educational Mobility and Life Course Economic Trajectories in a Social Democratic Welfare State
We test a prediction of cumulative advantage theory about enduring life cycle effects of educational mobility on earnings. We identify four mobility groups by cross-classifying parental education (degree/no degree) by their offspring (degree/no degree) and study the long-term economic consequences of intergenerational educational mobility. Data for this study come from Swedish population registers covering birth cohorts between 1953 and 1955. We …
Are upper-secondary track decisions risky? Evidence from Sweden on the assumptions of risk-aversion models
Relative risk aversion (RRA) models explain social class inequalities in education with risk avoidance, i.e., the risky choice assumption (RCA). This assumption concerns risks related to more ambitious educational choices and has been subject to little explicit scrutiny. In this paper, we test whether or not vocational education is a safety net that protects from labor market marginalization. We present an empirical assessment of upper-secondary …
Economics (24 works) · Sociology (22 works) · Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies (20 works) · Demographic economics (19 works) · Psychology (17 works) · Political science (15 works) · Inequality (14 works) · Demography (13 works) · Economic growth (11 works) · Population (11 works)