The effect of language proficiency, usage, and exposure on cognitive control

A study in early adulthood Chinese learners of English

Bibliographic Data

ID15087541
AuthorsLihua Xia (0000-0001-8735-1679, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China; The University of Edinburgh, UK, corresponding author), Antonella Sorace (0000-0002-8812-1979, The University of Edinburgh, UK), Mariana Vega‐mendoza (0000-0003-2511-1631, The University of Edinburgh, UK; Luleå University of Technology, Sweden), Xiaohong Deng (0000-0002-3530-5598, Hubei University), Thomas H Bak (0000-0002-6424-3699, The University of Edinburgh, UK)
Year2026
Volume30
Issue1
Pages249-266
Publication date2026-02-01
Peer ReviewedYes
Open AccessYes
TypeARTICLE
VenueInternational Journal of Bilingualism (JOURNAL)
Journal identifiersISSN: 1367-0069 • E-ISSN: 1756-6878
PublisherSAGE Publications (PUBLISHER • US)
DOI10.1177/13670069241307606
OpenAlexW4406764049
LanguageEN
Citations received2
References cited46

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: This study investigated the effect of the specific L2 learning experience (i.e., usage, proficiency, and exposure) on cognitive performance in 121 Chinese learners of English. Design/Methodology/Approach: The participants were divided into three groups: beginning, intermediate, and advanced learners. They are homogeneous in background variables (e.g., cultural and educational environment) but heterogeneous in the L2 language experience. They performed three non-linguistic cognitive tasks, tapping into multiple dimensions of cognitive functions in visual and auditory domains. Data and Analysis: Linear mixed-effect models were applied to RT-based analysis (i.e., analysis based on Reaction Time), and linear regression models were used for accuracy-based analysis. In addition, further multiple stepwise regression analyses were conducted to explore the relationships between individuals’ demographics, language experience, and their performance on the attentional tasks. Findings/Conclusions: Three groups were comparable in background measures (e.g., socioeconomic status [SES]) and fundamental cognitive abilities (e.g., working memory and IQ), but differed in specific subcomponents of cognitive functions. Specifically, compared with beginning learners, advanced learners who had a longer length of L2 usage and higher proficiency showed better inhibitory control; intermediate learners who received intensive L2 exposure and had higher proficiency showed better-switching ability and attentional disengagement. Intermediate and advanced learners were comparable in cognitive performance. The results suggest that early adulthood L2 learners experience similar cognitive effects of bilingualism, which are modulated by specific language experience. Originality: This is one of the first bilingual studies to incorporate both visual and auditory cognitive functions, while providing additional analyses to investigate the other components of cognitive control. Significance/Implications: The results contribute to the understanding of the key aspects of the L2 learning experience that contribute to the emergence of the cognitive effects of young adult learners

Cognition · Cognitive psychology · Developmental psychology · Language proficiency · Linguistics · Mathematics education · Second language · Computer Science · EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning · Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism · Psychology · Reading and Literacy Development · Artificial Intelligence

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