Means or Ends
Goal Focus Across Different Goals
Bibliographic Data
| ID | 21287960 |
|---|---|
| Authors | Bethany F Hoff (Seattle Pacific University), Nidia Ruedas-Gracia (0000-0003-4766-2709, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign), Ananya Tiwari (0000-0001-6573-3043, Texas A&M University), Christopher M Napolitano (0000-0001-8626-2914, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign) |
| Year | 2025 |
| Volume | 138 |
| Issue | 4 |
| Pages | 385-398 |
| Publication date | 2025-12-01 |
| Open Access | No |
| Type | ARTICLE |
| Venue | The American Journal of Psychology (JOURNAL) |
| Journal identifiers | ISSN: 0002-9556 • E-ISSN: 1939-8298 |
| Publisher | University of Illinois Press (PUBLISHER • US) |
| DOI | 10.5406/19398298.138.4.03 |
| OpenAlex | W7137908297 |
| Language | EN |
| References cited | 30 |
People can create their own development by setting and pursuing goals. Whether people represent these goals in terms of the means (process focus) or the ends (outcome focus) is a concept known as goal focus. Past research frames goal focus as a tendency that shifts across age, with younger adults focusing on outcomes and older adults focusing on processes, but a process focus is considered more beneficial for goal-related results. However, evidence on goal focus shifting across age is mixed. This article explores whether goal focus remains consistent across goals and whether a process or outcome focus is associated with more positive goal-related outcomes. We hypothesized people would adopt an outcome focus across goals (H1), but a process focus would be more strongly related to performance (H2) and motivational beliefs (H3). Three studies tested these hypotheses. Study 1 (N = 195 adolescents) assessed goal focus and performance. Study 2 (N = 162 university students) assessed academic and a leisure goal focus and motivational beliefs. Study 3 (N = 143 university students) assessed academic goal focus and motivational beliefs. H1 and H2 were supported: Participants reported a higher outcome focus across tasks (except in a leisure goal), but a process focus was related to higher performance. H3 was largely supported: A process focus was a stronger and more consistent predictor of motivational beliefs than outcome focus. Among other implications, we conclude that people adopt an outcome focus more often, but a process focus may be more beneficial
Focus (optics) · Focus group · Goal setting · Outcome (game theory) · Process (computing) · Regulatory focus theory · Behavioral Health and Interventions · Education, Achievement, and Giftedness · Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
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| Highly cited | No |
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