Compatibilist Theology and the Composition of Þórðar saga kakala

Þórðar saga kakala is a thirteenth-century contemporary saga, extant today in the surviving manuscripts of the fourteenth-century compilation Sturlunga saga. The original, and now lost, version of the saga—*Þórðar saga kakala hin mikla—was written in Western Iceland during the 1270s (based on linguistic evidence), most probably by someone close to Hrafn Oddsson who had been present at the saga's events (notably proposed to be one of the sons of Dufgus due to the prominence of their points of view).1In extant form, Þórðar saga kakala contains 50 chapters covering the years 1242–49/50 and 1254–56; however, *Þórðar saga kakala hin mikla was longer and, whilst also ending in 1256, likely began in ca.1233 (or even earlier in ca.1210).2 There are several arguments in favor of this hypothesis, for example the references in Þórðar saga kakala to events before 1242 which would not have made sense without earlier narrative explication and that are highly unlikely to have been down to the editorializing of the compiler of Sturlunga saga (e.g., chapter 22 of Þórðar saga kakala).Historically, contemporary sagas—such as the component texts of Sturlunga saga—have been treated uncritically by scholars seeking to cite them as primary sources of Icelandic history. Despite this, in recent years attitudes have begun to change.3 The transformation in approaches to the contemporary sagas has been spearheaded by the great scholar of Sturlunga saga, Úlfar Bragason, who has sought throughout his career to evaluate the literary qualities of the compilation, especially from a narratological standpoint.4This article carries out a literary analysis of Þórðar saga kakala, specifically in relation to how its structure and intertextual connections serve as meaning-making devices. The objective of this analysis is to tease out ideological and ethical insights from this text, in particular those ideas and values which would have been readily intuited by a contemporary reader.Two arguments are presented across this article. The first is that Þórðar saga kakala's interlaced structure encourages the reader to focus in on Þórðr's personal qualities. The second is that Þórðar saga kakala's implicit references to other texts serves to induce the reader to attribute Þórðr's successes to his possession of exceptional characteristics. The article closes by emphasizing the literary nature of this apparently historical text, and echoes Úlfar's call for historians to subject the text to thoroughgoing analysis when using it as a primary source.Þórðar saga kakala begins in medias res.5 Chapter 1 is a prologue of sorts, summarizing events in Iceland following the seizure of two of Þórðr's cousins, Órækja Snorrason and Sturla Þórðarson, at Hvítárbrú in the year 1242. The chapter reports that Órækja and Gizurr Þorvaldsson traveled abroad and tells how Kolbeinn ungi subjugated the Western Quarter of Iceland to his leadership. Chapter 2 describes Þórðr kakali's arrival back in Iceland in September 1242. Chapters 2–5 provide an account of Þórðr's attempt to gather support for his case against Kolbeinn and Gizurr for the deaths of his father and brothers at Örlygsstaðir in 1238.Chapters 6–7 explain the course of events when, after gathering an army, Þórðr immediately invades the Southern Quarter. This campaign comes off as a success in chapter 7, and chapters 8–10 describe the escape of Þórðr and his men from Kolbeinn, who has been made aware of the incursion by Hjalti biskupsson, the interim leader of Árnesþing.Chapters 11–22 tell of a series of escalating skirmishes between Þórðr's and Kolbeinn's sides, and the raising of navies by each. Following a devastating attack on Vatnsdalr by Þórðr, Kolbeinn avenges himself by pillaging Dalir and the region around Reykhólar, before hunting down Þórðr's brother, Tumi yngri, and killing him, in chapters 23–26. This outrage and the harsh measures imposed on the Eyfirðingar set the stage for chapters 27–35, which describe the course of the naval engagement called the Battle of Húnaflói and the amphibious maneuvers which followed.Though the Battle of Húnaflói proves undecisive, a partial resolution between the two sides is reached in chapters 36–38 by Kolbeinn returning Þórðr's patrimony to him and promptly dying shortly after. Þórðr establishes himself as the leader of Eyjafjörðr while Brandr Kolbeinsson takes the helm in Skagafjörðr. Chapters 39–41 describe escalating tensions between Þórðr and Brandr, culminating in a second confrontation at the Battle of Haugsnes in chapters 42–44.Having summarily executed Brandr following the catastrophic defeat of the Skagfirðingar, Þórðr and Gizurr agree to resolve their own dispute through the mediation of the Norwegian king in chapter 45. The two travel to Norway and submit their case to the Norwegian king's judgment in chapter 46. Chapter 47 tells what happened next in Iceland and dates the death of Brandr. Returning to Norway in chapter 48, it is stated that Cardinal William of Sabina decided the dispute in Þórðr's favor, and that he was to be sent by the Norwegian king to promote the royal cause with the assistance of the new bishop-elect of Hólar, Heinrekr.Chapter 49 summarizes Þórðr's time in Iceland during the period 1247–50. Most of the narrative is taken up with the matter of how he established leadership over the whole country and notes some key events during his ascendancy. Þórðr and Bishop Heinrekr, however, fall out, for the latter believes the former to have labored more on his own behalf than the king's. The consequence is that Bishop Heinrekr goes to Norway and makes the case against Þórðr before King Hákon in 1249. Chapter 49 ends abruptly in the winter of 1249–50 by telling how few support Þórðr's case in Norway.Chapter 50—the last—picks up the story four years after the end of chapter 49, with Gizurr's arrival in Norway in 1254 after the Flugumýrr Arson on 22 October 1253. After a confrontation with Þórðr at the court, we hear about Þórðr's activity in Norway as a sheriff, his popularity, and then an account of his death.Þórðar saga kakala has an interlaced narrative structure. This is immediately visible in the stranding of narrative action within scenes, such as in chapter 9 of Þórðar saga kakala wherein Þórðr and his followers are chased by Kolbeinn and his war party. Nonetheless, the saga's plot also comprises a main plot and several interwoven subplots, so it is interlaced on a grander scale as well. This higher level interlacement sometimes becomes starkly visible within the action of particular scenes, for example when Þórðr seizes control of Ormr Bjarnarson's farm in 1242.One of the reasons Þórðar saga kakala was composed using the technique of interlacement was to enable the representation of simultaneous action. Chapter 9 of Þórðar saga kakala serves as a particularly good example of this: there are five points in this chapter where events occur in different locations at precisely the same time. The use of interlacement to express simultaneity was common in Icelandic and foreign during the Þórðar saga kakala is in this interlacement an in Þórðar saga literary of interlacement is that it the (e.g., to of a second which to a (or This is a as the use of is a common which the of the has even as a the use of interlacement in Þórðar saga kakala is not for the of simultaneous in Þórðar saga kakala the from and to the Þórðr, serve to his personal qualities by and with other this by chapter 9 of Þórðar saga kakala, where points of are made first is the of the to the two the one Kolbeinn to in the as by of that his be by the to of his so that not of Kolbeinn's by be in Þórðar saga kakala throughout the chapters where it is stated that and how Kolbeinn by in the other Þórðr to in the which be in to and he Þórðar Þórðr and to Þórðr's men some then the the where he his to at and his between the and the to tell them what he he not what he him to not the of Þórðar saga kakala, there are of Þórðr in his his the that Þórðr to his following the Battle of Húnaflói where he that had and by their own against a the of his to the that be even there are several of on their to Þórðr to be and during the from Kolbeinn in 1242 that the common and the that men on their to Þórðr and sought out following the Battle of are *Þórðar saga kakala hin mikla was written within of Þórðar saga kakala be emphasizing how an Kolbeinn ungi even a about the as second is the of the two of the that Kolbeinn takes in the he to from the to his with out his for men then great of Þórðr's Þórðr out the Kolbeinn's men that had and then back to with it is from in Þórðar saga kakala that the had great for Kolbeinn, that this is not a judgment on Kolbeinn, more an of his leadership when with Kolbeinn in the for most of the This was due to two The first is that he he on his The second was that he was not in good and he would be of great that Kolbeinn was an and a by the on the and the attack from Þórðr is in the of from the and a example of to his Þórðr at the back of the and he would than There are several other of Þórðr's leadership in Þórðar saga one of the saga's of which describes Þórðr men and of the and that he in his during the and not across the the of the two is the of Þórðr's followers the of Kolbeinn's This is in their to the one when the by him, his own his to escape while he in a makes an in chapter this, the brothers are to escape Kolbeinn's the other Kolbeinn's men for their in hunting down Þórðr by in his own and the Kolbeinn's men to after Þórðr, than a there for a would not have in the that would off from their and than he for his After the end of the there to have been a the two at one Kolbeinn and his men with such that there was between There are of where the of Kolbeinn's followers in Þórðar saga kakala, the example which out most is the of for he and his father are as from the presented we to an of how Þórðr's is presented in Þórðar saga on what we have Þórðr has a of which within the by the are of Þórðr throughout Þórðar saga The are his in and to his the Norwegian in to his of the of there are a of ethical which he he is a good in to a and a of to provide a in Þórðar saga kakala, Þórðr to what he to be and and is that a to his men to two and The of Þórðr's for the by is by the following he is to have that he would a taken from a of what that had to him, and he would this The of Þórðar saga kakala Þórðr up to this ethical than Þórðr on over the to he Gizurr's at there was before them Gizurr's in the had been taken the such that there was with which to the men for some The men to Þórðr would not not this and that have was at that this is Þórðr's arrival at a farm to one of the two men who had most to his Þórðr not the the the and it which Þórðar saga kakala reports Kolbeinn and his men several during the his men to what is and shortly the at Gizurr's at was to the and it is that Þórðr is not the also the and to it as to the than Gizurr by this was the of the Þórðr not to the and has and Þórðr not Gizurr's the that would have been a even in This that he in of the that his own was of the which had to following the Battle of Þórðr is presented as to the This which that in most of the leadership be to of those who are for their and to up for in is the of as are from the of by to and seeking to for Þórðar saga kakala Þórðr as to the presented in and is by how he with he had to have then that he would After Þórðr over to him and that there not men in the Quarter with which he had more he abroad that this would not and and he so back after to Þórðr, and now in are echoes of the of the in the specifically when his followers and immediately their and is up with an on the as one would have This be by the following of Þórðar saga Hákon Kolbeinn ungi Kolbeinn Kolbeinn next as the Hákon from the where he had been as a that he had Kolbeinn during the at with men Þórðr then the to for the whole now had a great there as as Þórðr up to the to out and what there now up to and that Kolbeinn had up to the Þórðr sent up to himself at men that while there in was also that Kolbeinn had from the to gather had that Kolbeinn had been in against such a with so few men of his this, Þórðr his and while Þórðr and Sturla to the to Gizurr's Kolbeinn was in a which Þórðr have to his Þórðr had as men as Kolbeinn and would have been to and Þórðr not he his and This an which is common in the sagas (notably in that it is to an one Þórðr would not have an Þórðar saga kakala him not this is the case against the are as in the of such as in when of for the to during the case over we is not on the of Kolbeinn, There was against of the in for example use of would be in as in saga. it would that Þórðr is a for Kolbeinn that he would he would not which is the of the Þórðar saga kakala's representation of Þórðr is as a There are of his in the saga, and the most is where Þórðar saga kakala that Þórðr was for his following his to the following Þórðr to the and he had begun to the subject of Þórðr's and during the we now how he is throughout Þórðar saga scholars have that saga the of Þórðr in Þórðar saga Most Þórðr and to a common to and leadership in their has the and over to King in this King to his leadership a that he his men for and time a to be made on campaign in Þórðar saga kakala, for to the incursion in now with his whole to where he of the men to their as to what their objective and a during this it is that Þórðr those men who of that Þórðr that over the that from there support be Þórðr the of when there was an to attack two of Kolbeinn's followers who with a the men and their as to what after made an of a to Þórðr on behalf of Kolbeinn, his own and that of his immediately before the Battle of Húnaflói began to and Þórðr's after the and a of several to Þórðr in Þórðar saga kakala the of an with in of particular even that Þórðr was a in of his then for a time about his began his by the support of present and that in so that to on Þórðr had his the first of those was that he be an he was to his some of the men his had been at his and more the longer he and the the one would be on this to that Þórðr his the same we from in saga. saga that was with his with his and he at several other points in the several points in Þórðar saga kakala, Þórðr his a good example of this is when he to the of in the where Þórðr and are are This would have been by the contemporary as their not in the case of to on a is particularly in the of the of a leader the of and to the of the of the the is as of of and Þórðr are in their The of Þórðr's in in Þórðar saga kakala is by the following Þórðar Þórðr's men more than he is not with one also be down to there are of in Þórðar saga kakala which to to Þórðr's at which that good have been the in which Þórðr's is in Þórðar saga kakala is that he his men to of before with the The of in Icelandic be in of the we of example of Þórðr's in Þórðar saga kakala, the that he maneuvers his so that are the of when the two sides first at the Battle of of the as that Þórðr would attack from that Þórðr and his down the and when their and the of the of the personal and presented as the cause for his to the in be of of the with Þórðr's that the of Þórðr's to in Þórðar saga kakala in the chapters of saga. the career of and Þórðr are of of King to sagas first Þórðr's and in Iceland and Norway their after is by the former followers of a and the are to the sons of Dufgus and the who Þórðr in some success against their Þórðr a judgment against the and several from their The sagas describe skirmishes by the their men before of a first at which Þórðr and are in a in the this is longer and more in saga. comes a second which in and the of control by over their those with saga, the in Þórðar saga kakala Þórðr as an to and a of leadership due to his possession of the personal qualities. There are in Þórðar saga kakala the several of Þórðr himself to have the to the following from Þórðar saga to Tumi that he some great so that men would not of him than his there is a judgment on his leadership and by an of of an in the sagas which are down to are a by which the the narrative to their own of those who had in this campaign with Þórðr now that he would the leader he himself from was particularly that he had been to gather such a from such to that Þórðr is on a which end in him several not the country the most the of for Þórðr, it is that this not to him likely to leader of a as by this in the narrative he has control of the to are this of his of is in the and he is to a in relation to his the of and The also an of Þórðr's of his personal in this his and at the of his to be a those who had with and was particularly that he had been there are that the of Þórðr's career by the he himself from Þórðar saga kakala is that for Þórðr, personal qualities not be and up with and with is to a in how out for saga, made to the This is also for Þórðr's of his in Þórðar saga support is made by the that the two the of the and to are of support in Þórðar saga Þórðr his he his assistance so that attempt to some of his success that when Þórðr Kolbeinn's after the through the following is it was and without that men had the same in one from and to on such Þórðr from at on and to on when the was in the at the that Þórðr had for some great few chapters before a during Kolbeinn's incursion Þórðr great to and not have to with Kolbeinn's after had to in more immediately to a of at them and called on to the that with this the of the extant saga, when Þórðr was a by Kolbeinn when the latter he was close to he makes the following that he would agree to a would he of his and in Eyjafjörðr to be by the that would not he would be to this through his before the Battle of to be for Þórðr's brother, out of the Tumi to have been a the he made in 1242 to support than Hjalti Tumi also to have had to Þórðr which would have the by the earlier in the to his it is that he be he was to more than Kolbeinn's at the Battle of Þórðr to those who had for him, that good from him him the to which that Kolbeinn from killing him during his of the after the from of himself even to Þórðr and in their to over Eyjafjörðr and Norway the his favor in Þórðar saga kakala and saga is using the Þórðar saga kakala there are at two of in there is the which Kolbeinn and his men in their at Kolbeinn Kolbeinn Kolbeinn Kolbeinn now with his whole to and over up from Kolbeinn had his and the was to be at Kolbeinn that the was over the the was such during the there was a of with the men as the a set the to the such a and in as one in a was not before had where the from the Kolbeinn the to their in with other to and that This to and men their not of them of the was not before some men and this is it is unlikely that Kolbeinn would have his men to to in matter how a he have the Þórðar saga kakala is Kolbeinn's the of be from this two from the The first is of and the was to at the as by its in a from to around The second is the to out the so that over that be out his the and for one about for the had in the where was also to one of the texts in the there are also to in saga and saga which provide for contemporary of this The harsh and to Þórðar saga kakala's of the by Kolbeinn and his men in Þórðr's the following the death of Þórðr the to and it Tumi Kolbeinn the killing of his men to there was sent to Þórðr was then a that Tumi was up in a by Þórðr his men to immediately and set was immediately by so to the Þórðr then called on to the and immediately it Þórðr on a to the of more than the example from Þórðar saga there is a to two events in the the of is on by through the of activity with the of the which takes to the same and the to this to to where to it is that is in Þórðar saga kakala and saga. more to (or in a particular the of his control over about a by a in of their There is that in two texts the what successes by their personal qualities in the saga kakala the of Þórðr's exceptional personal qualities by to text in which the there is in saga to the in which Þórðr and support in chapters 2–5 of Þórðar saga kakala as his Þórðr goes to and former followers to Þórðr in Dalir the King a series of by Þórðr to gather the support of his and former of the while on the from saga kakala to to saga saga was written in and to tell of the events the of and the The of the saga was in the of the of the from by of assistance be of what happened to Þórðr in 1242 in the in chapters 2–5 of Þórðar saga kakala with in chapter of points of are Þórðr's and to support are five the first two is sought in (or are for are the of of and of while for Þórðr are his when he makes at and his when he to to his Sturla Þórðarson, the at and are to Þórðr as and are to it is not before to the one there is even the that Þórðr and the of a saga (or at the saga of which the which to this was in it that the of Þórðar saga kakala would have had a of with with this of saga would have in the the of Þórðr in 1242. when he back in Norway in this with to would have the Þórðr was up The was and death at the of had to the killing of his father The of and his to a father provide with Þórðr article has Þórðar saga kakala to literary specifically in relation to how its structure and intertextual connections serve as meaning-making devices. The objective of the analysis was to tease out ideological and ethical insights from this text, in particular those ideas and values which would have been readily intuited by a contemporary article began by that Þórðar saga kakala contains a of narrative which to the of one in such the to this and his then that the intertextual references in Þórðar saga kakala serve to to the reader that Þórðr's personal qualities what him to against Kolbeinn, to his to over a This and for a text to and to the to the saga's we have throughout this article that Þórðar saga kakala is as as it is it has and and it is not a representation of of the text goes its and due to its Þórðar saga kakala is the of the text is Þórðar saga kakala, as we have is the is not of in Þórðar saga kakala is by the of in the of the plot is a of the This is not from also on what we about the and of the that this This is highly as the that historical of for of to a on how the was in of its in of narrative plot the is the and especially the of to in the as This is the case even in texts that not for the of Úlfar has as other scholars of Iceland are to seeking to cite contemporary sagas Þórðar saga kakala as primary to be their and the same to them as to other

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