Unstable Biographies. The Ethnography of Memory and Historicity in an Angolan Prophetic Movement

Bibliographic Data

ID2156233
AuthorsR L Blanes (0000-0001-7547-8920, Schlumberger (Ireland), corresponding author)
Year2011
Volume22
Issue1
Pages93-119
Publication date2011-03-01
Peer ReviewedYes
Open AccessNo
TypeARTICLE
VenueHistory and Anthropology (JOURNAL)
Journal identifiersISSN: 0275-7206 • E-ISSN: 1477-2612
PublisherInforma UK Limited (PUBLISHER • GB)
DOI10.1080/02757206.2011.546854
OpenAlexW2120160446
LanguageEN
Citations received20
References cited61

In this article I discuss issues of memory and historicity in a contemporary African prophetic movement, the Tokoist church. I do so by focusing on the multiple processes of "biographization" of the prophet's (Simão Toko) life from the different allegiances within the movement. I suggest that, despite recent critiques on the biographical method, the ethnography of those (unstable and heterogeneous) processes can be very helpful to understand the place of memory and historical consciousness in contemporary Christianity. Keywords: MemoryBiographyEthnographyTokoist churchAngola Acknowledgements I would like to thank my colleagues Roman Sarró and Fátima Viegas, since this article owes much to our collective brainstorming during our fieldwork in Luanda. I would also like to thank other colleagues whose insights helped this article develop: Peter Pels, Catarina Fróis, José Mapril. Notes [1] "Simão Toko is the name of the redeemer / The world proclaims salvation / In the New Jerusalem the angels will meet". Excerpt from hymn sung in the Tokoist church of Lisbon, March 2009. [2] This paper is an outcome of my current post-doctoral research on African Christian movements in Europe (located at the Institute of Social Sciences of the University of Lisbon and funded by the FCT-Foundation for Science and Technology), and of my participation in two research projects: "Recognizing Christianity: how African migrants redefine the European religious heritage" (funded by the NORFACE consortium) and "The Christian Atlantic: ethnographies of religious encounters between Portuguese, African and Brazilian churches in Lisbon" (funded by the FCT), both coordinated by Ramon Sarró. The ongoing research, initiated in 2007, included ethnographic fieldwork in Lisbon and Luanda. [3] This was the first of two courtesy interviews we were privileged to have with the Bishop during our joint fieldwork periods in Luanda in 2007 and 2008 on prophetic movements (namely, the Tokoist, Kimbanguist and Mpadist movements). [4] A person of Bakongo ethnicity. [5] See Comaroff and Comaroff (1992 Comaroff, J. and Comaroff, J. 1992. Ethnography and the Historical Imagination, Boulder, CO: Westview Press. [Google Scholar]). From a philosophical point of view, Foucault's highlight of the discursive regimes behind narratives and "statements" (2004 Foucault, M. 2004. A Arqueologia do Saber, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitaria. [Google Scholar]) were also a source for questioning the method's scientificity-as was Derrida's deconstructionist and hermeneutic critique on language and text (1974 Derrida, J. 1974 [1967]. Of Grammatology, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar] [1967]). [6] This growing interest is also contextualized by the "boom" of memory as a topic in the social sciences and anthropology, in particular (see Antze and Lambek 1996 Berliner, D. 2005. "The abuses of memory: reflections on the memory boom in anthropology". Anthropological Quarterly, 78(1): 197-211. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar]; Berliner 2005 Antze, P. and Lambek, M., eds. 1996. Tense Past: Cultural Essays in Trauma and Memory, London & New York: Routledge. [Google Scholar]). The field of cognitive studies has also produced work on the psychology of religious memory (see Bloch 2009 Bloch, M. 2009. "La mémoire autobiographique et le Soi. Pour une alliance entre sciences sociales et sciences cognitives". Terrain, 52: 52-63. [Google Scholar] for a recent debate). Following David Berliner, I acknowledge the risk of epistemological confusion with an a-critical usage of the concept of memory along with ideas of "collective identity" and "culture". In this paper, I associate memory with historical consciousness through the acts of invocation, transmission and, ultimately, remembering: how the "past" is lived in the present and projected into the future (see Ricoeur 2006 Ricoeur, P. 2006. Memory, History, Forgetting, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]). See also Bloch (2009 Bloch, M. 2009. "La mémoire autobiographique et le Soi. Pour une alliance entre sciences sociales et sciences cognitives". Terrain, 52: 52-63. [Google Scholar]) for a recent critique on this topic. [7] For debates on prophetism and charisma in Africa, see, among many others, Balandier (1963 Balandier, G. 1963 [1955]. Sociologie Actuelle de L'Afrique Noire, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. [Google Scholar] [1955]); Andersson (1958 Andersson, E. 1958. Messianic Popular Movements in the Lower Congo, Uppsala: Almquist & Wiksells. [Google Scholar]); Fernandez (1973 Fernandez, J. 1973. "The precincts of the prophet: a day with Johannes Galilee Shembe". Journal of Religion in Africa, 5(1): 32-53. [Google Scholar]); MacGaffey (1977 MacGaffey, W. 1977. "Cultural roots of Kongo prophetism". History of Religions, 17(2): 177-193. [Google Scholar], 1983 MacGaffey, W. 1983. Modern Kongo Prophets. Religion in a Plural Society, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. [Google Scholar]); Mary (2002 Mary, A. 2002. "Prophètes Pasteurs. La politique de la délivrance en Côte d'Ivoire". Politique Africaine, 87: 69-93. [Google Scholar], 2005 Mary, A. 2005. "Histoires d'Église: héros chrétiens et chefs rebelles des nations célestes". In Entreprises Religieuses Transnationales en Afrique de l'Ouest, Edited by: Fourchard, L., Mary, A. and Otayek, R. 155-181. Paris: Karthala. [Google Scholar]); Soares (2004 Soares, B. 2004. "Muslim Saints in the Age of Neoliberalism". In Producing African Futures: Ritual and Reproduction in a Neoliberal Age, Edited by: Weiss, B. 79-105. Leiden: Brill. [Google Scholar]); Engelke (2007 Engelke, M. 2007. A Problem of Presence. Beyond Scripture in an African Church, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [Google Scholar]); Sarró (2009 Sarró, R. 2009. The Politics of Religious Change on the Upper Guinea Coast. Iconoclasm Done and Undone, Edinburgh: International African Library. [Google Scholar]). [8] For a similar debate in other African contexts, see Fernandez (1970 Fernandez, J. 1970. "Rededication and prophetism in Ghana". Cahiers d'Études Africaines, 10(38): 228-305. [Google Scholar], 1973 Fernandez, J. 1973. "The precincts of the prophet: a day with Johannes Galilee Shembe". Journal of Religion in Africa, 5(1): 32-53. [Google Scholar]) and Mary (1993 Mary, A. 1993. "Le travail symbolique des prophètes d'Eboga: logiques syncrétiques et entre-deux culturel". Cahiers d'Études Africaines, 33(132): 613-643. [Google Scholar], 2000 Mary, A. 2000. Le Bricolage Africain des Héros Chrétiens, Paris: Éditions du Cerf. [Google Scholar]). [9] See Sarró (2009 Sarró, R. 2009. The Politics of Religious Change on the Upper Guinea Coast. Iconoclasm Done and Undone, Edinburgh: International African Library. [Google Scholar]: 2-6) for a review and critique of this literature. [10] Regarding these biographies, it is noteworthy to mention the following: Simão Quibeta's book Simão Toco. O Profeta Africano em Angola. Vida e Obra (Simão Toko. The African Prophet in Angola. Life and Works, n.d. Agostinho, P. n.d.. Simão Gonçalves Toco e os Tocoistas no Mundo, Edição de Autor Luanda [Google Scholar]) is written in "two voices", that is narrated by both Quibeta and Simão Toko "via" Afonso Nunes (thus making it hard to distinguish between both voices throughout the text). Joaquim Kisela, author of Simão Toco. A Trajectória de um Homem de Paz (Simão Toko. Trajectory of a Man of Peace, 2004 Kisela, J. 2004. Simão Toco. A Trajectoria de um Homem de Paz, Luanda: Nzila. [Google Scholar]) wrote the book after extensive research in Angola and Portugal. He was one of the founders of the first Tokoist church in Europe. Pedro Agostinho, in turn, wrote Simão Gonçalves Toco e os Tocoistas no Mundo (Simão Gonçalves Toko and the Tokoists in the World, n.d. Agostinho, P. n.d.. Simão Gonçalves Toco e os Tocoistas no Mundo, Edição de Autor Luanda [Google Scholar]) in collaboration with the Twelve Elders group. [11] I refer to two documentaries, Vida e Obra de Simão Toko (1997, directed by Joaquim Kisela) and Simão Toco, O Senhor da Paz (2009, directed by Francisco Rebelo). [12] Despite the richness of this material, with which I am only starting to deal, my focus here will be on the "internal" production of religious memory, that which stems from within the church and from ethnographic observation. Tokoists are in turn less aware of other bibliographical material produced by government agents (Cunha 1959 Cunha, S. 1959. Aspectos dos Movimentos Associativos na África Negra, Volume II (Angola), Lisbon: Junta de Investigações do Ultramar. [Google Scholar]; Gonçalves J. 1967 Gonçalves, J. 1967. "O Tocoismo Perante a Sociedade Angolana (Relatório de Material Escolhido)". Bulletin de l'Institut Fondamentale de l'Afrique Noire, 29(3-4): 678-694. [Google Scholar]; Santos 1969 Santos, E. 1969. Religiões de Angola, Lisbon: Junta de Investigações do Ultramar. [Google Scholar]), writers associated with the Catholic Church (Estermann 1965; Gabriel 1978 Gabriel, M. 1978. Angola, Cinco Séculos de Cristianismo Literal, Queluz [Google Scholar]; Henderson 1990 Henderson, L. 1990. A Igreja em Angola. Um Rio com Várias Correntes, Lisbon: Editorial Além-Mar. [Google Scholar]), and academic researchers (Margarido 1972 Margarido, A. 1972. "The Tokoist Church and Portuguese Colonialism in Angola". In Protest and Resistance in Angola and Brazil. Comparative Studies, Edited by: Chilcote, R. 29-52. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [Google Scholar]; 1972b Margarido, A. 1972b. "L'Église Toko et le Mouvement the Libération de L'Angola". Mois en Afrique, : 80-97. [Google Scholar]; Pelissier 1978 Pelissier, R. 1978. "A la Recherche d'un Dieu Anti-Colonialiste". In La Colonie du Minotaure. Nationalismes et Révoltes en Angola (1926-1961) 159-189. Éditions Pélissier, Orgeval [Google Scholar]; Fernando 1995 Fernando, M. 1995. "A Trajectória de Simão Gonçalves Toko e o Tokoismo no Despertar da Consciência Nacional em Angola-Um Contributo para a Luta de Libertação Nacional". In Angola. 40 anos de guerra, 22-33. VV.AA., Sociedade de Estudos e Intervenção Patrimonial, Gaia. [Google Scholar]; Grenfell 1998 Grenfell, J. 1998. "Simão Toco: an Angolan prophet". Journal of Religion in Africa, 28(2): 210-226. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Gonçalves A. 2003 Gonçalves, A. 2003. Tradição e Modernidade na (Re)Construção de Angola, Porto: Afrontamento. [Google Scholar]; Hansen 2006 Hansen, M. L. 2006. God for Everyone-Everyone for Himself'? An Angolan Example of Civil Society beyond the Blueprints, International Development Studies, Roskilde University; Portuguese Studies, Copenhagen University. Integrated Thesis [Google Scholar]). Of these, Grenfell (1998 Grenfell, J. 1998. "Simão Toco: an Angolan prophet". Journal of Religion in Africa, 28(2): 210-226. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), Margarido (1972 Margarido, A. 1972. "The Tokoist Church and Portuguese Colonialism in Angola". In Protest and Resistance in Angola and Brazil. Comparative Studies, Edited by: Chilcote, R. 29-52. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [Google Scholar]) and Hansen (2006 Hansen, M. L. 2006. God for Everyone-Everyone for Himself'? An Angolan Example of Civil Society beyond the Blueprints, International Development Studies, Roskilde University; Portuguese Studies, Copenhagen University. Integrated Thesis [Google Scholar]) are the only available accounts in English. [13] See Quibeta (n.d. Quibeta, S. n.d.. Simão Tôco. O profeta africano em Angola. Vida e obra, Luanda: Edição de Autor. [Google Scholar]: 27-29) and Agostinho (n.d. Agostinho, P. n.d.. Simão Gonçalves Toco e os Tocoistas no Mundo, Edição de Autor Luanda [Google Scholar]). This event was also described by Nunes in our interview. [14] Interview with the Twelve Elders, October 2008. The "Twelve Elders" quoted here and throughout the text are a group composed of the remaining original members still alive, their descendants and other followers. See below for an explanation of the contemporary situation of this group. [15] This wisdom also implied the attribution of the charismatic gift of foreseeing (vaticinar). [16] Interview with Bishop Nunes, December 2007. Interview with the Twelve Elders, October 2008. [17] Interview with the Twelve Elders, October 2008. [18] As mentioned above, these letters were often intercepted by the Portuguese political police (PIDE). Today, they can be found at the Portuguese national archive of the Torre do Tombo and can be publicly accessed. The Tokoists (namely those in the church of Lisbon), as well as several academics, have consulted them on several occasions,. In October 2008, Bishop Afonso Nunes, in a visit to Lisbon, also consulted them. [19] Interview with Bishop Afonso Nunes, December 2007. [20] Biographers and believers mentioned to us that the Portuguese authorities tried to kill him on more than one occasion, during his exile in the Azores islands. On this topic, see Kisela (2004 Kisela, J. 2004. Simão Toco. A Trajectoria de um Homem de Paz, Luanda: Nzila. [Google Scholar]: 190), Quibeta (n.d. Quibeta, S. n.d.. Simão Tôco. O profeta africano em Angola. Vida e obra, Luanda: Edição de Autor. [Google Scholar]: 52-53) and Hansen (2006 Hansen, M. L. 2006. God for Everyone-Everyone for Himself'? An Angolan Example of Civil Society beyond the Blueprints, International Development Studies, Roskilde University; Portuguese Studies, Copenhagen University. Integrated Thesis [Google Scholar]: 57). [21] Perhaps this explains why Simão Toko did not appoint a successor to the church leadership before his death, as the exact reasons for this decision were never made public. Be that as it may, the consequences of this decision were traumatic for the church. [22] The church split into more than two groups. Other groups, such as the "18 Classes and 16 Tribes", the "Palanca-Prenda" and, later on, the "Mundial" were formed. Nevertheless, these two are the most representative. [23] This has been suggested for a similar case in the Kimbanguist church in Sarró et al. (2008 Sarró, R. Prophecies of Suffering: Entangled Historicities in an African Migrant Church. unpublished paper presented at the African Studies Workshop. November11. IL: University of Chicago. [Google Scholar]) and Sarró and Blanes (2009 Sarró, R. and Blanes, R. 2009. "Prophetic diasporas: moving religion across the Lusophone Atlantic". African Diaspora, 2(1): 52-72. [Google Scholar]). [24] I should also mention that Nunes is not the only one to claim to have been visited by Toko's spirit. Other Tokoists have similar statements (Fátima Viegas, personal communication). Such is the case of Mateus Rogério, who does not follow Nunes and claims to communicate with him frequently (as well as being incorporated by his spirit). Nevertheless, the sociological impact of his claims within the Tokoist community is much less visible. [25] Interview with the Twelve Elders, October 2008. [26] This does not mean that all Tokoists who met the original prophet have remained with the Twelve Elders. Many can be found in the Central Directorship led by Bishop Nunes. Such is the case, for instance, of Auxiliary Bishop Luzaisso Lutango, leader of the Central Directorship up to the year 2000, that stepped down after the arrival of Nunes. [27] Interview with the Twelve Elders, October 2008; see also Agostinho (n.d. Agostinho, P. n.d.. Simão Gonçalves Toco e os Tocoistas no Mundo, Edição de Autor Luanda [Google Scholar]: 81-82) [28] See Kisela (2004 Kisela, J. 2004. Simão Toco. A Trajectoria de um Homem de Paz, Luanda: Nzila. [Google Scholar]). Interestingly, the Kimbanguists also have a similar discourse regarding Toko; nevertheless, they portray him as a former Kimbanguist believer who left the church to create his own (see Blanes 2009 Blanes, R. 2009. "Remembering and suffering: memory and shifting allegiances in the Angolan Tokoist church". Exchange, 38(2): 161-181. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). [29] Interview with pastor in Lisbon church, May 2008

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