"Barbados or Canada?" Race, Immigration, and Nation in Early-Twentieth-Century Cuba

The most optimistic Cuban commentators today can be heard arguing that the economic crisis on the island in the wake of the fall of the Soviet Union has brought with it Cuba’s first chance to be truly independent. The island passed from being a literal colony of Spain to being what Cuban scholars refer to as a “neocolony” of the United States in 1898, and then to a state of economic and political dependence (albeit of a different nature) on the USSR after 1959. In each of these periods ideologies of national independence provoked strong resonances among the population. But the nature of this nation and the meanings of independence have been subject to repeated contestation.Fidel Castro welcomed Pope John Paul II to Cuba on 22 January 1998 with a speech denouncing Spanish colonialism, and linking Spain’s extermination of Cuba’s indigenous population, its enslavement of Africans, and its atrocities during the War for Independence (1895–98) with the Nazi holocaust, the Roman persecution of Christians, and the current U.S. embargo of Cuba. He drew a parallel between Cuba’s position in the world today as victim of the U.S. embargo and the situation of the indigenous, enslaved Africans, Cuban patriots, holocaust victims, and Christians. What it means to be Cuban, he suggested, is to be a victim of, and to resist, oppression by foreigners. Although he alluded to ethnic, cultural, ideological, and biological mixing as also to Cuba’s this to a political and of Cuban the of a from the of the enslaved a to the and the of population, the the and the of in the have been is by and economic to this that to the and the of the political and in the that for the to to the as as a The the also has between the the and the indigenous and in ideologies in Cuba and in the United States is in the United States refer to and in U.S. and extermination of the indigenous by it is in the of to for national being with the the victims, of these In the is today as Cuba’s political and economic and the and that a of The first is and is a of what it means to be Cuban to of Cuba’s to be a The is and have Cuban commentators Cuba’s in different in Cuba’s and what of have been and it is a that Cuban has been on and to the of that be Cuban is being being ideologies have political independence with and with of Cuba’s a a and for and national independence as with the of the of be and and have the in of the that national Cuban been to to and for of ideologies have to oppression and in the of national Cuba’s dependence has to this on national and the to to national have that and that national have the nature of the Cuban in to in the and and and as to national and the and a of as the of national to the The of U.S. in and the of Spain this as a that in the world in of and of the that as a in to with the that been the of Spanish colonialism, among have been among the the Cuba a of U.S. by the and the in U.S. of the Cuba’s of and Spanish and the island from as as a from the in the it the that the of in the it the that a of U.S. on of by as have from the in Cuba the of and the nature of in the of a and of and economic brought by U.S. the Cuban and Cuba’s Cuba The of to of and economic what these and ideologies that and and that and by Spanish In the first after commentators this and that a Cuba strong to be truly the for as and the for and on and In the of that Cuban in and that the Cuban by the Cuban Cuban for to by by the of the for to the for and arguing that the of, a Cuban a that the for resonances in the and to Cuban of nation being by of the as U.S. a by from the to the In of, of, that Cuban it that a to the Cuban Spanish of also that the by and from Cuban But and that this the of Cuba’s and the that the of the the in in the the United States as the and on the that it the be and with of he the of and the of in the national with the of in a Cuba the victim of national and mixing as to the of different of Cuba’s of and the for and these have been as for of the and of what it to be scholars have that ideologies of and have been of the of ideologies in the and to by arguing that the that and and the of the and for of the its and from the of and the of a of in the the by a in and also from the national to a in and the to of this of in Cuba and a in with the of in Cuban U.S. Cuba’s independence U.S. in the and and to and to for the U.S. the of In in the Spanish and to Cuba of between and the between and economic in of economic U.S. for to and to from and been of to and Cuban of as of U.S. to and in Cuba can the of the different of and and in these and The national in Cuba and in the national as on on and on to and of and to to in these and Cuba’s national of in of national crisis in Cuba a of of and the most it in the of Cuban national that of a Cuban of and its to national a that of Cuba’s as as it a to in and the national in to the of the by of Cuba’s and commentators on of and national and of Cuban and and also Cuba’s is as a of the of the that national as in Cuba’s on for position on the of and by also the of the U.S. of the of U.S. in in a passed in the in and U.S. of Cuban in the of Cuban to and national and in the he national on the of and is the most that be in the the in Cuba to be the in the be is what it in the of the from and among the of of of today to be the of and as by the the also and among the Cuba’s the wake of the U.S. of and the Cuba’s to its Cuba to its among with and be to in the with the of and with the of the of this of Cuba the of independence among have been the first to the of a and the of independence and with Cuba on a with the United with a of and Although in U.S. economic of in on the of and the of and in the Cuban on and in on the for a in national as a of and a of and of U.S. and national different In the of and different of and of Cuban with to on political and economic the of to the of and for and for and as a to national after the U.S. in the of that a for in of political in that by and by to each in to each of also to the on a and with and political also the for the first political in in by U.S. its on a of and and the of and Cuban independence to its to and the of with the of the the with and on the of independence with has by and have in as of the of have in have a of and have in of and of being be for to U.S. with this he with the nature of the Cuban But national and as in that the be on the of to and the by of the the and the position of the of and the of the between and that on the among political that of The as to the to the it on and the that the for of it this by be of of In the of on and and of the that to this the of for a with the the to a for the of of In and this for of to the that Spanish to in the in the to that being Cuban being as as as as in the for from of as it with and and the the the of by the as a to as and for the of the of political Cuba’s of the the political on and also the the a of of the in of and to of between the a and the the position the in of its for Cuba’s the as a to and to the nation as the by and of the The between the of and the for of the U.S. a of the for a the United States a from U.S. its to in the the and of its in to the U.S. the Cuban Cuban to to a and the of a independence it Cuba in a position of by its national Cuba has in and that in it has and from the to the by and by and it has in this the for a of the of of also with to in the in the of the also the political to on the from and the The is that of and in the have to the with in Cuba and that it is the the In and and for the as in these been as by a with of the of different of the between and nation in the of Cuban the the to to the the and of and the to the of and in what of as to the and that this and from be The of that of in this have the current state of and on the of the to the of and the The that have a in the the in this of Cuban that of the of the the that between and the that to the in and the the that be to in from and from from the of the of and to of The of after the and have to the of a and the of the it also have been to and and state to the first of Cuba during the first after the January a to the Cuban in of Cuba a to to the of in the for a for this the of the and that the a passed by the to the of of this of has that the Spanish to a of in the colony in to that to the He in that that and the between the is the of the of this and its dependence the from this this Spanish in to a Cuba of a Cuba in In this position in on a and a of the that and in the the that the is to from this and with the in that to Cuban on and the in and on Cuban have the and the to for the and of the of for the of this to the of of and of the The of in the to the by in the of a colonialism, and the that to of the of the it and of from that the for it the of and also the from the by Cuban in the nation and by the to Cuban on he in the of of it on the that been a to Cuban in the Cuban by the of and a different and have different a of the that for and in the that it the of The the Cuban and of from mixing with in the of the with a to position is it is the first of what a in The of and Cuban that of Cuban a and a biological and a with of it a Cuban in that Cuban and that a of with a among the of to this that in position a and as a of a of In that Cuban of of of the brought to the have the and in the Cuban a after the that on national the of a to and the that of be to most of that of can also to with the and with the for to the to a and from with been of in Cuba this of commentators as a of Cuban and the Cuban from and from a of the of of for in In of that a U.S. in that the of to and the Cuban to a to on a the United States in it a of to the Cuban the U.S. of it to U.S. The first for the after the and and with The to in from to from the of a of the for in of as as the of to the nation a to the national But this as of to and the nation as it of to The of for that and that in the a to the the of during the first of the in Cuba the that to national and national with and to with Cuban to to in Cuba to the of this as a to the position of in Cuban a of the as as in and and the nature of Cuban and on the the and by the the Cuban to its to by the of U.S. by the economic dependence on and the of in the the to to the that these by and as as and of the a as of Spanish it to for a of The a the of in Cuban and on for and and the of to the of the to the the of nation and and Cuba to in the of in as the of the Cuban from and to to being to the to the U.S. in and in with biological commentators on from the U.S. in to as as the of and Cuban as to the of a in of being as The its to on in The a first The and and the of But also in the the to ideologies that as to the a to the In the he what commentators the of in Cuba in he it that for is the of the with to most as of the these have on Cuba’s population. that that Cuban by a to economic with Cuban for the of the economic and commentators to that in economic the in a that on the that to Cuban to to by that in the for have to the to Spanish a of the from with in the The most of by from as U.S. in and of the by the of Spanish on this on the repeated the that and that on these he from the he also that and of a Cuban in the of in Cuba is he it from to to to to that and the of the by in these of that it Spanish and to with for and to from on the to that from to that to with on the it is Spanish for the position in the to Cuban the Cuban has to the that and have the most of to and with it be that these the and In this the the for the position of in the with that the Spanish and what But most to these and the that the most of and that of the of to the of the to and the of and to the the to to and Cuban to that to in the to Cuban national and among that with to and as to the chance to and be welcomed to the national in Cuban be as the of be in as political the is the of and a of a biological it Cuba’s of and colonialism, of and the of the Cuban this in the to by to in to as the to the Cuban that to in Cuba is of what to be the of what on the is a to in and for of be in the by this that is on and the most in the Cuban is the of the in the as a He is he he have with the of of and of the state of he and the Cuban in a and he a that Cuban with have among and and in the in a and Cuban it is in that these to to with and to to the of between and in this it to to that the that to Cuba’s this from the he and the from the of and the he in he with that to Cuba. is this a to the and as a he it be the in its and he by of In the of the to the that to a and the the to have a in a this in the in to Cuba’s population, the be with that to the most of that of the The national the of to be the and that of Cuba the of the In from the that it of the to a and in this this to is a and to that of be to to Cuban that the different from that in a a biological The also as of for In have the and of the Cuban In this the by in by this position of the the the a the The to this economic that with the of the a of the of the that of the The for as as to to the of to the commentators with from the of the and a to the of in of the most the of Cuban and to that a and of also of to in the of Independence to the of most to from the after the of of and Cuban to a of and nation in and be the that Cuban that Cuban, of it the of and the of to the of Cuban to and as it the it to Cuba. of the a in the by the this a of and the between and these a in the of ideologies in to the to as as to commentators this of by a different of Cuban the in Cuban by the in the independence and that of for a Cuba in of Spanish to be a Cuba. of these in the with the of But in the it that to to a as in the Cuban of the that the the from to a of The in and the of its be as a in the of the in the first to and to the among as a of national the first by the and of the of in the to national of is the to the most to and this The of the political on as a for he a and in the of to the of national and that Cuban to from Cuban the of by in the independence and to the and as on this the of Cuban and of to the commentators on of to the Cuban that the to a for commentators the the of today have to this is for and the of the to in the in the of it and with and and and as for have with have and that to a of of to the in the of Independence the of as in of of Cuba’s and in the of Cuban Cuban to of the by and Cuba’s national in for this Cuba’s national its to that the Cuban to a of the Spanish for Cuba. for a for Cuban independence and by what he as a and on the of the of the and Cuba. in the that Cuba that Cuba’s the to the a the of Cuban have this the of the in Cuba. that the brought in is that as with the fall of the with the Spanish in of the a with a independence the of the have this The the of by Spanish and the during the of of that is a to this of the to to the as on the of the he the of as the of the after it the of and the that Cuban on its on its Spanish and its that for to and to the Cuban from the and from he Cuban and a and of the then by the Cuban also to the independence He the the that the this a of the of for the Cuba is a Spanish the in of Cuban truly then Cuban to as it is is of that it be by a that Cuban it be it be to in a and in the the a for the of independence and Cuban to being first as In arguing to Cuban in the independence and in the of the Cuban and the of the Cuban this a and with Cuba what a Cuban, then and as Cuban as that and for this that with that to a in with Cuban in to a in Cuban by the that the of these to be these from the In he and to the of the the today that the of of the and that the of to by strong The in the of of he to the of the of and to the by Cuba of and and of from the United the of and this the the that Cuban in with and is a of between and and it is that to the in to he as to the of the of with with for But of what for from the of and of and Spanish the nature of and arguing that he in the current and independence Cuban he that for national to as that he he of what in a as a of a of he he of a by and the of on in Cuba in the it be that in that is as have a the current of in national the to U.S. But to a of national the of Cuba as a The it from and to a nation and by biological of been by and But the that and on Cuban in the as as and as as and be to and But the in and and with the first of economic and as and and from Cuban in this have the and of the Cuban the also the that to be from of the commentators on different also the of The Cuban in its of a for independence and The of from to the of this the to and the independence of the and to be on the and and the of the and that to be the in the of on the and nation as commentators this and he been in the and be in the and as to and national as to be to these that for and on as in the of a in and to and the by in to by and and ideologies that of and in the and in to the political and by in the and that the in the of ideologies and of the and in and and of the this in a of its in a the that these on and by the of the the in to the United States a among Cuban and the that U.S. a Cuba’s dependence on Spain In the of between the for national and the of the a of Cuban the the for a national with the of and Cuba’s the of The of in to the of a to what economic in to the of of for as as to the of for the economic crisis the that the for from subject to and and the and to of to Cuba of Although have of that Cuban with and to also to the of of and economic in the and a of the first to and as of Cuban and in on the of of the in Cuba Cuban national from the of independence in of In on of the he with a of of its of the the of its he a political of the of that for the of Cuban from these a of the Spanish and of the the Cuban independence of the different from that by of the and it the Spanish it the of In these the on a of, a and its to these a of the that from as to as of Cuba’s he a in this also from and and from in to the of to the The of the and and of the to The in the and the in the as in the a national in to economic and the Spain and after the United States and the But to on in and the as from the the the as the a of on the Cuban then the by this what to the a Cuba In the that and with a to the Cuban in and a to Cuban national on Cuba’s for by to for for Cuban of the of be from the a as a and as to the in by that the by to of of the the is a in with and with and with and a and of the on a Cuban national the in to its with on U.S. political and economic a with the to of and to and to the and and with a of in and in the also and that Cuban the of the Cuban as the victim of the the to on a a of and and the of the for the the in a of in in to the that Cuba to the of Spanish and and to between and in what But of that the is as of the Cuban have to have in the of it is it is and by enslaved by and of of also of to it in this that and from Cuban he Cuban of and and also is the the and that for Cuba has been in the by the of and the and the and the economic of this to U.S. in in to to the that this and with the between the and the is the with the being that of being with it is with and and of the in Cuban a from the of as to what it to be that Cuba a of what he is of the of that the its and in by by have been and have been from of Spanish and to what Cuban What Cuba the of of Cuba is the of its the Cuban repeated of the by in the with the and as to Cuban and with of national He the between and as the as The and of to and to and to the that the of of Cuban as to in The of and in the a of the for in on of with the of and the of the Cuban and the of Cuban and its the of its a national the commentators of the a of and from and that Cuban in the by and these of the that to of and a of the it in Cuba with in Cuban a and by Cuban the that as the that to that of Cuban be by to The of U.S. on national to the of and the of national and the of to the in to a in Cuba In the Cuba from that the U.S. economic on the of of as in In economic in Cuba in and it in the of by political U.S. and to and a this in a of on the Cuba and and in the of of as with U.S. and and of the and U.S. as The political also to between the to be by with U.S. and the that these on population, in the a of and and the United States and to a and as and a in the from to the to the independence as the for as a for to from the that a for national to a that have this as a in the of Cuban this the of the it as that in a between and and as in the this of its that between and and this been a to the and have to be a to the to by to of it to for on the the of and the the of on the of to the in as this in the that the of as as the ideologies of the and and ideologies as of Cuban in the But the of the and in the political that Cuba The of the and and repeated to a of that and means for a from the a and a of to and and by and the meanings to that of a in being and then in the of the and as and to in the Cuba that for for this from a Cuban a a of for and the on and to and to the and that in of this as it the of the the on the the the and the for of the in in the of and on the in this has from the have and on a of to has have In John and the the have to

Colonialism · Ethnology · Genocide · Ideology · Independence (probability theory) · Indigenous · Nazism · Oppression · Persecution · Political science · Politics · Population · Sociology · The Holocaust · Caribbean history, culture, and politics · Cuban History and Society · Demography · History · Latin American and Latino Studies · Law

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