The Vanishing Volcanoes

The entire corpus of Icelandic Family Sagas contains no express reference to volcanic fires. This article explores the reasons behind this puzzling absence in a genre whose realism is rightly celebrated. I propose to read a unique, oblique reference in Grettis saga as possible evidence of a submerged vernacular theory. Acknowledgements This paper began its life as a footnote in my dissertation (Falk 2002 Falk, Oren. "The Cultural Construction of Violence in Medieval Western Scandinavia." Unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, 2002. [Google Scholar], 187, note 110). Earlier versions were presented at the First North-American Interdisciplinary Conference on Medieval Icelandic Studies, Cornell University (20 May 2006), and at the Thirteenth International Saga Conference, York, UK (8 August 2006). The author is grateful to participants at both conferences for their helpful comments. Thanks also to colleagues María Cristina García, Ian C. McDougall and Tom Hill for their help with preparatory research. Abbreviations [H] Hauksbók. [K] Konungsbók. ÍF Íslenzk fornrit. [S] Sturlubók (in references to Landnámabók); Staðarhólsbók (in references to Grágás); Skálholtsbók (in references to Eiríks saga rauða). Notes [1] Except as otherwise noted, all translations are mine. Icelandic personal and place names are only translated occasionally, as required by the discussion. Scandinavian names have been alphabetised in accordance with Icelandic convention: patronyms have not been transposed; ð and d appear together, as do long and short vowels; þ, æ, and ö/ø follow z. Icelanders' names simplified in foreign publications have been restored to their native forms, with the exception of Guðbrandur Vigfússon (see Cleasby and Vigfusson 1957 Cleasby, Richard, and Gudbrand Vigfusson. An Icelandic–English Dictionary, 2nd ed., rev. William A. Craigie. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. Reprint 1993. [Google Scholar]). [2] Thus Taylor, for example, sensibly remarks (with reference to some extravagant blasons populaires): "It is difficult to know to what extent such epigrams were popular. Many, I suspect, are no more than semi-literary witticisms which enjoyed only a short life" (1931, 102). A similar caution underlies Buc Buc, Philippe. 2001. The Dangers of Ritual: Between Early Medieval Texts and Social Scientific Theory, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]'s assault on the category of medieval ritual (2001, esp. chaps 1–4). [3] The landnám tephra was first described by Sigurður Þórarinsson (1944, 55 and passim); see also Grönvold et al. (1995 Grönvold, Karl, Níels Óskarsson, Sigfús J., Johnsen, Henrik B., Clausen, Claus U., Hammer, Gerald Bond and Edouard, Bard. 1995. Ash Layers from Iceland in the Greenland GRIP Ice Core Correlated with Oceanic and Land Sediments. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 135: 149–56. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 150–3). [4] Information is sparse for the early period, but Falk (2002 Falk, Oren. "The Cultural Construction of Violence in Medieval Western Scandinavia." Unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, 2002. [Google Scholar], 227–8 [Table 5.1]) enumerates five or six eruptions c. 870–1104 (to which must be added at least one more, Katla c. 920; Dugmore et al. 2000 Dugmore, Andrew J., Newton, Anthony J., Larsen, Guðrún and Cook, Gordon T. 2000. Tephrochronology, Environmental Change and the Norse Settlement of Iceland. Environmental Archaeology, 5: 21–34. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], 25), and approximately thirty more by the end of the fifteenth century. [5] It may be significant that the common noun hrip denotes a loosely woven, sieve-like basket, and the verb at hripa means "to leak" or flow profusely (Cleasby and Vigfusson 1957 Cleasby, Richard, and Gudbrand Vigfusson. An Icelandic–English Dictionary, 2nd ed., rev. William A. Craigie. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. Reprint 1993. [Google Scholar], s.v.). [6] Jakob Benediktsson describes the manuscript tradition in detail (ÍF 1, l-cvi). My references are to two of five main manuscripts that survived into modern times: Sturlubók [S], compiled c. 1275–80, and Hauksbók [H], from the first decade of the fourteenth century. [7] Landnámabók Landnámabók. In Íslendingabók, Landnámabók, ÍF 1, ed. Jakob Benediktsson. 29–397. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1986. [Google Scholar]'s purpose and ideology have been much debated. I follow Sveinbjörn Rafnsson (1974 Sveinbjörn Rafnsson. Studier i Landnámabók: Kritiska bidrag till den isländska fristatstidens historia. Bibliotheca historica Lundensis, 31. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1974. [Google Scholar], 166–203). Adolf Friðriksson and Orri Vésteinsson (2003 Friðriksson, Adolf and Vésteinsson, Orri. 2003. "Creating a Past: A Historiography of the Settlement of Iceland". In Contact, Continuity, and Collapse: The Norse Colonization of the North Atlantic, Edited by: Barrett, James H. 139–61. Turnhout: Brepols. Studies in the Early Middle Ages, 5.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) propose a divergent, but no less sceptical, view. [8] Compare Jóhannes Áskelsson (1955 Jóhannes, Áskelsson. 1955. Þar var bærinn, sem nú er borgin. Náttúrufræðingurinn, 25: 122–32. [Google Scholar]); he notes volcanic rock from an eruption in historical times superimposed over the older, pre-landnám lava deposits at the site. For borg, see Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog / A Dictionary of Old Norse Prose, ed. Arnamagnæan Commission. Copenhagen: The Arnamagnæan Commission, 1989– (In addition to a vol. of indices, three alphabetical vols have been published so far, covering the entries 'a, á' to 'emprurr'). [Google Scholar] (1989–), s.v.; for hraun, see Cleasby and Vigfusson (1957 Cleasby, Richard, and Gudbrand Vigfusson. An Icelandic–English Dictionary, 2nd ed., rev. William A. Craigie. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. Reprint 1993. [Google Scholar]), s.v. Other place-name aetiologies cited above are probably also folk etymologies: Galtarhamarr may mean "hogback-shaped crag" (compare Cleasby and Vigfusson 1957 Cleasby, Richard, and Gudbrand Vigfusson. An Icelandic–English Dictionary, 2nd ed., rev. William A. Craigie. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. Reprint 1993. [Google Scholar], sub gltr), Dgurðarnes probably means "the headland over which the sun is at breakfast time," and Kambsnes likely describes a headland topped by a sharp, serrated ridge (Franzen 1964 Franzen, Gösta. Laxdælabygdens ortnamn / The Place-Names of the Laxdæla Region. Acta Academiæ Regiæ Gustavi Adolphi, 42. Uppsala and Copenhagen: A.-B. Lundequistska Bokhandeln and Ejnar Munksgaard, 1964. [Google Scholar], 56 and 23). [9] Compare Grove (1988 Grove, Jean M. 1988. The Little Ice Age, London and New York: Methuen. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 29): "[T]he long outlet glacier in the south west of Mýrdalsjökull, Sólheimajökull ... is drained by one of the most dangerous rivers in Iceland, known as the Jökulsá á Sólheimasandi. It has another name, Fúlilækur, which means stinking river, attributable to the smell of hydrogen sulphide emanating from it." [10] One other episode (Landnámabók chap. 279 [H], ÍF 1, 323) has been interpreted as alluding to a jökulhlaup (Þorvaldur Thoroddsen 1905 Þorvaldur Thoroddsen. Landskjálftar á Íslandi. 2 vols. Hið íslenzka Bókmentafélag. Copenhagen: S.L. Möller, 1899–1905 [vol. 1: Jarðskjálftar á Suðurlandi. 1–199. 1899; vol. 2: Landskjálftar á Íslandi. 200–69. 1905]. [Google Scholar], 236), but this reading is extremely speculative. Elsewhere, mention of a farm site "where there is now a field of burnt lava" (Landnámabók chap. 302 [H], ÍF 1, 345) apparently refers to old basalt exposed through soil erosion rather than to a recent flow; see Sigurður Þórarinsson (1977 Sigurður, Þórarinsson "Jarðvísindi og landnáma." In Sjötíu ritgerðir helgaðar Jakobi Benediktssyni 20. júli 1977, ed. Einar G. Pétursson and Jónas Kristjánsson. 2 vols. vol. 2, 665–76. Stofnun Árna Magnússonar á Íslandi, 12. Reykjavík: Stofnun Árna Magnússonar, 1977. [Google Scholar], 669–70). [11] Many excellent introductions to saga literature are available nowadays; Clover and Lindow (2005 Clover, Carol J., and John Lindow, eds. Old Norse–Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide. Islandica, 45. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985. Reissued with a Preface by Theodore M. Andersson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005). [Google Scholar]) is perhaps the most accessible. For disputes over genre classification, see Lönnroth (1975 Lönnroth, Lars. 1975. The Concept of Genre in Saga Literature. Scandinavian Studies, 47: 419–26. [Google Scholar]), Harris (1975 Harris, Joseph. 1975. Genre in the Saga Literature: A Squib. Scandinavian Studies, 47: 427–36. [Google Scholar]), and Andersson (1975 Andersson, T. M. 1975. Splitting the Saga. Scandinavian Studies, 47: 437–41. [Google Scholar]). [12] As Cleasby and Vigfusson dryly remark (1957, sub hraun): "The whole of Icel[and] may be said to be a burnt-out lava field." Kristni saga is thought to have been written in the second quarter of the thirteenth century (ÍF 15 part 1, cliv). [13] "Þau eru fjöll ... þess lands, er ór sèr verpa ægiligum eldi með grimmasta grjótkasti, svá at þat brak ok bresti heyrir um allt landit, svá vítt sem menn kalla fjórtán tylftir umbergis at sigla rèttleiði fyrir hvert nes; kann þessi ógn at fylgja svá mikit myrkr forviðris, at um hásumar um miðdegi sèr eigi handa grein. Þat fylgir þessum fádæmum, at í sjálfu hafinu, viku sjáfar suðr undan landinu, hefir upp komit af eldsganginum stórt fjall, en annat sökk niðr í staðinn, þat er upp kom í fyrstu með sömu grein. Keldur vellandi ok brennustein fær þar ínóg." This mid-fourteenth-century saga by abbot Arngrímr Brandsson, originally perhaps in Latin, was part of an ultimately unsuccessful campaign to canonise Guðmundr Arason, bishop of the northern Icelandic see of Hólar in the early thirteenth century. [14] In a similar vein, compare St Þorlákr's miraculous healing of a badly burned horse that had been carelessly ridden into a geothermal area (jarðhitar, "earth-heat"; Þorláks saga A Þorláks saga A. In Biskupa sögur II, ÍF 16, ed. Ásdís Egilsdóttir. 45–99. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 2002. [Google Scholar] chaps 33–53, ÍF 16, 90; jarðhiti, an infrequent word, occurs also in Grettis saga Grettis saga. In Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar, Bandamanna saga, Odds þáttr Ófeigssonar, ÍF 7, ed. Guðni Jónsson. 1–290. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1936. [Google Scholar] chap. 61, ÍF 7, 199). [15] Grettis saga has traditionally been dated to the early fourteenth century (ÍF 7, lxviii–lxx). Its earliest manuscripts, however, are from the last quarter of the fifteenth century, and the saga's most recent editor suggests it may be not much older than these, although he tends to place its composition shortly before 1400 (Örnólfur Thorsson 1994 Thorsson, Örnólfur "Farið á hriflingabjörgum í Grettlu." In Strengleikar slegnir Robert Cook, ed. Margrét Eggertsdóttir, Sverrir Tómasson, Valgerður Brynjólfsdóttir and Örnólfur Thorsson. 79–83. Reykjavík: Menningar- og minningarsjóður Mette Magnussen, 1994. [Google Scholar], xxxvii–xxxix). [16] See, for example, Njáls saga Njáls saga. In Brennu-Njáls saga, ÍF 12, ed. Einar Ól. Sveinsson. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1954. [Google Scholar] chap. 78 (ÍF 12, 193); Egils saga Egils saga. In Egils saga Skalla-Grímssonar, ÍF 2, ed. Sigurður Nordal. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1933. [Google Scholar] chap. 85 (ÍF 2, 297–8); Þorskfirðinga saga Þorskfirðinga saga. In Harðar saga, Bárðar saga, Þorskfirðinga saga, Flóamanna saga, Þórarins þáttr nefjólfssonar, Þorsteins þáttr uxafóts, Egils þáttr Síðu-Hallssonar, Orms þáttr Stórólfssonar, Þorsteins þáttr tjaldstœðings, Þorsteins þáttr forvitna, Bergbúa þáttr, Kumlbúa þáttr, Stjörnu-Odda draumr, ÍF 13, ed. Þórhallur Vilmundarson and Bjarni Vilhjálmsson. 173–227. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1991. [Google Scholar] chap. 3 (ÍF 13, 183); Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks konungs Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks. In Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda vol. 2, 1–71. [Google Scholar] chap. 4 (in Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda, ed. Guðni Jónsson. 4 vols. [Reykjavík]: Íslendingasagnaútgáfan, 1954. [Google Scholar] vol. 2, 14–23); and possibly also Hrómundar saga Gripssonar Hrómundar saga Gripssonar. In Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda vol. 2, 405–22. [Google Scholar] chap. 4 (in Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda vol. 2, 410–11). See also Boberg (1966 Boberg, Inger M. Motif-Index of Early Icelandic Literature. Bibliotheca Arnamagnæana, 27. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1966. [Google Scholar], N532). The same phenomenon is known in later Icelandic folklore as málmeldur, "metal-fire," or vafurlogi, "flickering flame" (Jón Árnason 1954 Jón Árnason. Íslenzkar þjóðsögur og ævintýri, ed. Árni Böðvarsson and Bjarni Vilhjálmsson. 6 vols. rev. ed. Reykjavík: Bókaútgáfan þjóðsaga, 1954–61. [Google Scholar]–61, vol. 1, 266–9; vol. 3, 221–2, 349, and 351–2; vol. 4, 43). Analogues occur in continental Scandinavian folklore (for example, Kristensen 1892 Kristensen, Evald Tang. Danske Sagn, som de har lydt i Folkemunde. 6 vols. Århus and Silkeborg: Århus Folkeblads Trykkeri, Jacob Zeuners Trykkeri and Silkeborgs ny Bogtrykkeri [Kr. Johansen], 1892–1901. [Google Scholar]–1901, vol. 3, 419–25 and 453) and elsewhere throughout the world (Thompson 1955 Thompson, Stith. 1955–58. Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. rev. and enlarged ed. 6 vols. [Google Scholar]–58, N532 and N564). [17] Not counting occurrences in Landnámabók, I find in the Family Sagas six mentions of icebergs in Icelandic waters (Eyrbyggja saga chaps 57 and 61, ÍF 4, 158 and 165; Laxdœla saga Laxdœla saga. In Laxdœla saga, Halldórs þættir Snorrasonar, Stúfs þáttr, ÍF 5, ed. Einar Ól. Sveinsson. 1–248. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1934. [Google Scholar] chap. 66, ÍF 5, 196–7; Fóstbrœðra saga Fóstbrœðra saga., In Vestfirðinga sgur, ÍF 6, ed. Björn K. Þórólfsson and Guðni Jónsson. 119–276. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1943. [Google Scholar] chaps 4–5, ÍF 6, 136–9; Vatnsdœla saga Vatnsdœla saga. In Vatnsdœla saga, Hallfreðar saga, Kormáks saga, Hrómundar þáttr halta, Hrafns þáttr Guðrúnarsonar, ÍF 8, ed. Einar Ól. Sveinsson. 1–131. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1939. [Google Scholar] chap. 15, ÍF 8, 42; Bárðar saga chap. 5, ÍF 13, 114; see also Landnámabók chap. 5, ÍF 1, 38–9), four mentions of skriður–"land-," "rock-," or "snow-slides"—( Hrafnkels saga Hrafnkels saga. In Austfirðinga sgur, ÍF 11, ed. Jón Jóhannesson. 95–133. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1950. [Google Scholar] chap. 1, ÍF 11, 97–8 [ = Landnámabók chaps 283 (S) and 244 (H), ÍF 1, 299]; Eiríks saga rauða chap. 2, ÍF 4, 197–8 [H] and 405 [S]; Gísla saga Gísla saga Súrssonar., In Vestfirðinga sgur, ÍF 6, ed. Björn K. Þórólfsson and Guðni Jónsson. 1–118. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1943. [Google Scholar] chap. 18, ÍF 6, 59–60; Vatnsdœla saga chap. 36, ÍF 8, 96; and cf. Bárðar saga chap. 16, ÍF 13, 156–7; see also Landnámabók chaps 289 [S], 250 and 295 [H], ÍF 1, 303–5 and 339), and one or two references to bears in Iceland (Vatnsdœla saga chaps 15–16, ÍF 8, 42–4; implicitly, perhaps also Eyrbyggja saga chap. 58, ÍF 4, 161; cf. Grœnlendinga þáttr Grœnlendinga þáttr. In Eyrbyggja saga, Brands þáttr rva, Eiríks saga rauða, Grœnlendinga saga, Grœnlendinga þáttr, ÍF 4, ed. Einar Ól. Sveinsson and Matthías Þórðarson, rev. Ólafur Halldórsson. 271–92. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1935; rev. 1985. [Google Scholar] chaps 1 and 6, ÍF 4, 275 and 290–1; Auðunar þáttr vestfirzka Auðunar þáttr vestfirzka. In Vestfirðinga sgur, ÍF 6, ed. Björn K. Þórólfsson and Guðni Jónsson. 359–68. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1943. [Google Scholar] chap. 1, ÍF 6, 361–4; see also Landnámabók chaps 179 and 259 [S], 146 and 223 [H], ÍF 1, 219 and 285–7). [18] See Ogilvie and Gísli Pálsson (2006 Ogilvie, Astrid, and Gísli Pálsson. "Weather and Witchcraft in the Sagas of Icelanders." Thirteenth International Saga Conference preprint, 2006 [accessed 1 July 2006]. Available from http://www.dur.ac.uk/medieval.www/sagaconf/ogilvie.htm; INTERNET. [Google Scholar]). The inspired translation of gerningaveðr is theirs. [19] Compare also Eyrbyggja saga Eyrbyggja saga. In Eyrbyggja saga, Brands þáttr rva, Eiríks saga rauða, Grœnlendinga saga, Grœnlendinga þáttr, ÍF 4, ed. Einar Ól. Sveinsson and Matthías Þórðarson, rev. Ólafur Halldórsson. 1–186. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1935; rev. 1985. [Google Scholar] chaps 51–4 (ÍF 4, 140–50); Grœnlendinga þáttr chap. 2 (ÍF 4, 277–8); Grettis saga chaps 79–82 (ÍF 7, 251–61); Harðar saga Harðar saga. In Harðar saga, Bárðar saga, Þorskfirðinga saga, Flóamanna saga, Þórarins þáttr nefjólfssonar, Þorsteins þáttr uxafóts, Egils þáttr Síðu-Hallssonar, Orms þáttr Stórólfssonar, Þorsteins þáttr tjaldstœðings, Þorsteins þáttr forvitna, Bergbúa þáttr, Kumlbúa þáttr, Stjörnu-Odda draumr, ÍF 13, ed. Þórhallur Vilmundarson and Bjarni Vilhjálmsson. 1–97. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1991. [Google Scholar] chap. 15 (ÍF 13, 40); and Flóamanna saga Flóamanna saga. In Harðar saga, Bárðar saga, Þorskfirðinga saga, Flóamanna saga, Þórarins þáttr nefjólfssonar, Þorsteins þáttr uxafóts, Egils þáttr Síðu-Hallssonar, Orms þáttr Stórólfssonar, Þorsteins þáttr tjaldstœðings, Þorsteins þáttr forvitna, Bergbúa þáttr, Kumlbúa þáttr, Stjörnu-Odda draumr, ÍF 13, ed. Þórhallur Vilmundarson and Bjarni Vilhjálmsson. 229–327. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1991. [Google Scholar] chap. 22 (ÍF 13, 284–5). [20] "Þat er mælt. at engi scolo verða vaða verc." Grágás, the laws presumed to have been in effect in medieval Iceland prior to its incorporation into the Norwegian realm in the 1260s, are known principally from two lavish mid-thirteenth-century manuscripts, Staðarhólsbók [S] and Konungsbók [K]. Both manuscripts probably postdate, or nearly so, the abolition of the laws they contain (if, indeed, these were ever in effect). See Fix (1993 Fix, Hans. 1993. "Grágás". In Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, Edited by: Pulsiano, Phillip, Wolf, Kirsten, and K. New and [Google Scholar]) on the William and and in Saga Iceland, and University of Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], This two of the saga's into an in to the a and their Bárðar saga chap. (ÍF 13, a similar in a rather See also the on the of a two in Landnámabók: "It was as the had been [S] and [H], ÍF 1, A more of this by the author is in I follow on and of the 18, [Google Scholar] and for and see also and and Sigurður Sigurður, Studier Copenhagen: Ejnar [Google Scholar] Þórarinsson and ed. The 2, Oxford: and , [Google Scholar] and however, Pálsson ed. The Press. [Google Scholar], the of in the saga's saga. In Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda vol. 1, [Google Scholar] of in chap. may on Icelandic with See also first of in chap. (in Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda vol. 1, and these with of Katla that is that a volcanic eruption in a glacier so as is in other than had been and to such an cf. See 4 chap. ed. de 3 vols. and [Google vol. 3, cf. ed. In 2 Turnhout: 1954. [Google Scholar] chap. vol. 1, The translation of the to have been read in Iceland 1993. In Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, Edited by: Phillip, Pulsiano, Kirsten, Wolf, and New and [Google Wolf, 2001. on Old In and the The Early of the in Edited by: H. and and New [Google Scholar], For the see 4 chap. ed. og og 2 [Google Scholar], vol. 1, in et de in et et in et in The of with the of first in the of of abbot of and later in Þórarinsson Sigurður, og Náttúrufræðingurinn, [Google Sigurður, Reykjavík: [Google Scholar], to have in a Einar Jónsson. et de de In de literature et de ed. and de de [Google Scholar], Compare also the translation of in Old Norse ed. and Stofnun Árna Magnússonar á Íslandi, Reykjavík: Stofnun Árna Magnússonar á Íslandi, [Google Scholar]'s 3 er at eru sem er in the manuscripts is a probably written in in the 1993. In Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, Edited by: Pulsiano, Phillip, Wolf, Kirsten, and K. New and [Google Scholar]). its it contains more for and of the than for See, for example, a "The the or a over a it with ... the of the and ... the of the is by a first and The of the A Andrew and [Google Scholar], and Compare (1995 1995. an [Google Scholar], and also the of genre and other of ... I from the although I it in a than notes that thirty and are into in (Örnólfur Thorsson note I have not been to af og í this is what Harris refers to in that there is a by Örnólfur Thorsson to of Grettis see to the and in the Old Icelandic sub Grettis saga, available from this genre classification, see "The of Genre in the A of Þorskfirðinga In and Edited by: and and The [Google Scholar]). The two in their forms, fourteenth century (ÍF 13, and Both and evidence to in over for example, Fóstbrœðra saga chap. (ÍF 6, and in A [Google Scholar], a from a much of and a have my reading of the manuscripts I have been to from all or and only four by the of the ÍF have or a similar but four may perhaps an to have been in Compare also and in saga saga In Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda vol. 2, [Google Scholar] chaps 5, 6 and (in Fornaldar sögur Norðurlanda vol. 2, and For through an as or for example, the in Kristni saga chap. (ÍF 15 part 2, and Njáls saga chap. (ÍF 12, of the the has from a with a see by Sigurður Þórarinsson Sigurður, Reykjavík: [Google Scholar], ed. 4 vols. in Reprint de [Google Scholar] had at such see in / / er as is in the it to the he so I have vol. 1, the See, for example, det Copenhagen: ed. [Google Scholar] [K] part 2, Egils saga chaps and 85 (ÍF 2, and 297–8); Eiríks saga rauða chap. (ÍF 4, [H] and Grettis saga chap. (ÍF 7, Bandamanna saga Bandamanna saga. 1936. Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar, Bandamanna saga, Odds þáttr Ófeigssonar, Edited by: Jónsson. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka ÍF 7, [Google Scholar] chaps and (ÍF 7, and Vatnsdœla saga chap. (ÍF 8, Þorsteins þáttr chap. 2 (ÍF 13, to the of may be to the of this be on this see saga. In ÍF ed. Bjarni Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, [Google Scholar]'s saga chap. (in ÍF compare Matthías Matthías og var In ed. Sigurður and Copenhagen: & [Google Scholar]

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• Ash layers from Iceland in the Greenland GRIP ice core correlated with oceanic and land sediments

  Open Access•Karl Grönvold, Níels Óskarsson et al.•Earth and Planetary Science Letters•1995

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• Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, Volume 1

  Stith Thompson•Motif-Index of Folk-Literature•1960

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• Tefrokronologiska studier på Island. Pjórsárdalur och Dess Förödelse

  Sigurdur Thorarinsson•Geografiska Annaler•1944

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• Creating a Past

  Adolf Friðriksson, Orri Vésteinsson•Contact, Continuity, and Collapse•2003

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• The Dangers of Ritual

  Philippe Buc•Dangers of Ritual•2001

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• Bloodtaking and Peacemaking

  William Ian Miller•Bloodtaking and Peacemaking•1990

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• L'effet de réel

  Roland Barthes•Communications•1968

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• Toward a Structural Definition of the Riddle

  Robert A Georges, Alan Dundes•Journal of American Folklore•1963

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• The Study of Folklore in Literature and Culture

  Alan Dundes•Journal of American Folklore•1965

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• Proverbs and the Ethnography of Speaking Folklore1

  Open Access•E Ojo Arewa, Alan Dundes•American Anthropologist•1964

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