Metalworking at Megiddo during the Late Bronze and Iron Ages

Previous articleNext article FreeMetalworking at Megiddo during the Late Bronze and Iron AgesNaama Yahalom-Mack, Adi Eliyahu-Behar, Mario A. S. Martin, Assaf Kleiman, Ruth Shahack-Gross, Robert S. Homsher, Yuval Gadot, and Israel FinkelsteinNaama Yahalom-MackThe Hebrew University of Jerusalem Search for more articles by this author , Adi Eliyahu-BeharBar-Ilan University Search for more articles by this author , Mario A. S. MartinTel Aviv University Search for more articles by this author , Assaf KleimanTel Aviv University Search for more articles by this author , Ruth Shahack-GrossUniversity of Haifa Search for more articles by this author , Robert S. HomsherHarvard University* Search for more articles by this author , Yuval GadotTel Aviv University Search for more articles by this author , and Israel FinkelsteinTel Aviv University Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreIntroductionOver the years, the excavations at Tel Megiddo have yielded numerous metal objects, as well as evidence of metallurgical activity. Here we show that metalworking was practiced continuously in the southeastern sector of the tell from the end of the Middle Bronze Age until Iron IIB. During this time, one can trace changes in the production processes, including the introduction of ironworking alongside the continuation of bronzeworking. Dating and contextualizing this significant development is crucial to understanding the social, economic, and geo-political circumstances under which it occurred. The evidence that we present shows that iron production was accompanied by a substantial increase in iron, as expressed on the level of consumption. This occurred during Iron IIA, concurrent with cultural and political changes, expressed, inter alia, in the architectural layout of the city and its cultic practices. Possible evidence that local bronzesmiths may have been partially engaged in iron production already in Iron Age I is found in the form of a hoard recently unearthed at Megiddo, although iron-working debris has not yet been found in contemporary contexts.The fact that metalworking and exploitation of metal resources are strongly tied to political power and social infrastructure is well accepted.1 Especially intriguing is the introduction and gradual preeminence of iron over bronze (which continued to be produced), a process that took place at the turn of the first millennium bc, hand in hand with the emergence of new territorial kingdoms in the southern Levant.2 Increasing evidence for metalworking at Tel Megiddo, a multi-layer site that served as an important territorial/ administrative center during both the Bronze and Iron Ages,3 sheds new light on the subject.Although Tel Megiddo has been excavated by different teams for over a century, only the recent implementation of new excavation methods and microarchaeology techniques have brought to light substantial evidence of both bronze- and ironworking. 4 This evidence was traced in the recent Tel Aviv University-led excavations in Areas K and Q (Fig. 1).5 Temporal and spatial distribution of metallurgicallyrelated finds indicate that metalworking in the southeastern sector of the tell occurred continuously at least from the end of the Middle Bronze Age (earlier layers have not yet been studied there) until Iron IIB. Within this span of time, a noteworthy development was the introduction and expansion of ironworking alongside continued bronze production (Table 1). Our goals in studying this unparalleled dataset are fourfold: first, to demonstrate continuity in metal production in the same area for at least 800 years; second, to investigate when and how the introduction of iron first took place and study its interaction with the existing bronzeworking tradition; third, to understand the socio-political circumstances behind this process; and fourth, to investigate possible connections to cult.Figure 1. Aerial photo of the southern part of Tel Megiddo, looking northwest, showing excavation Areas K and Q. The picture also indicates the location of adjacent tombs on the Eastern Slope, Schumacher's smithy, two metal hoards and relevant cultic objects.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointTable 1. Stratigraphy, relative chronology and sequence of metalworking at Megiddo. According to radiocarbon dates, the transitions occurred as follows: K-10/K-9 between 1560–1505 bce; K-9/K-8 between 1290–1210 bce; K-7/K-6 between 1185–1135 bce; K-5/K-4 between 1110–1060 bce; and K-4/K-3 between 976–901 bce (These dates are based on M. B. Toffolo, et al. Radiocarbon 56 (2014): 221–244). Gray boxes and bold letters represent strata with metalworking remains. *OI = Oriental Institute ExcavationsPeriodOI Stratum*Area KHoardsArea QMetalworkingIron IIBIVAK-1 Q-3/2 Late Iron IIAVA-IVBK-2 Q-4 (+Schumacher)Iron +bronzeEarly Iron IIAVBK-3 Q-5**Iron +bronze Q-6 Late Iron IVIAK-412/Q/76Q-7Bronze +ironEarly Iron IVIBK-51739?Q-8BronzeLB IIIVIIAK-6 Q-9BronzeLB IIVIIBK-7Ceramic VIIBK-8pot bellows VIIIK-9in tombs excavated by the OI BronzeMB III-LB IX/IXK-10 BronzeLate MBXI/XK-11 Bronze**. Transitional early/late Iron IIAView Table ImageIn order to meet these goals, we trace the spatial distribution of metallurgical debris (including metal droplets and slag) and metalworking paraphernalia (including pot bellows, crucibles, and tuyères), as well as hoards and cult-related objects, both possibly connected to this industry. We also incorporate the results of the analysis of sediments from potential metalworking contexts, since the use of microarchaeological methods has emerged as most useful for the identification of previously undetected ironworking contexts.6 Results of Lead Isotope Analysis (LIA) performed on several bronze objects are likewise mentioned in order to indicate the use of diverse copper ore sources at various times. Finally, we monitor the increasing numbers of iron vs. bronze tools and weapons in well-stratified contexts at Megiddo as supporting evidence for the crucial technological change of the onset of ironworking and its expression at the level of consumption.Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Metallurgical RemainsBronzeworkingEvidence for bronzeworking was found in Area K at the southeastern edge of the mound, in Levels K-11 (Strata XI/X of the Oriental Institute excavations [hereafter: OI]), K-10 (=OI Strata X/IX)7, K-9 (=OI Stratum VIII), K-6 (=OI Stratum VIIA), and K-5 (=OI Stratum VIB). During the late Middle Bronze, Late Bronze, and Iron Ages, this sector of the site functioned as a domestic area (with evidence for bronze production and other industries), with an uninterrupted sequence of superimposed courtyard houses.8Level K-9 has thus far yielded more significant evidence of metallurgical activity than Levels K-11 and K-10 (Table 2). Bronzeworking debris and scrap were retrieved from various spaces of the large courtyard house unearthed in this level (Squares N/10, O/9–10 and P/9–10; see Table 2). The majority of these remains originated in the central courtyard/hall (08/K/33) of the house, which was surrounded by rooms on all sides, including an adjoining large space to the northwest (10/K/27) (see Fig. 2). Pillar bases were uncovered in both large spaces, suggesting that they were at least partially roofed.Table 2. Bronzeworking remains from Levels K-11 to K-9LocusReg. No.Square StratumLocus descriptionContextDescription10/K/122LB 6O/9K-11?Ashy debrisBelow masonry-built family tombCrucible slag14/K/95AR1O/10K-11Striated surfacesSpace in central portion of buildingDroplet14/K/34AR3P/11K-10Occupational accumulationSpace in eastern portion of buildingDroplet10/K/112AR1N/10K-10Striated surfacesSpace in northwestern portion of buildingDroplet08/K/33bAR45O/9K-10/K-9Striated surfacesCourtyard/Hall 08/K/33 in houseCrucible rim fragment (Figure 5:1)10/K/60AR15O/10K-9Striated surfaces (including heat-altered sediment)Courtyard/Hall 08/K/33 in houseChunk08/K/75AR19P/10K-9Occupational debrisCourtyard/Hall 08/K/33 in houseDroplet08/K/75AR7P/10K-9Occupational debrisCourtyard/Hall 08/K/33 in houseDroplet10/K/53AR3O/10K-9Striated surfacesCourtyard/Hall 08/K/33 in houseScrap10/K/53AR6O/10K-9Striated surfacesCourtyard/Hall 08/K/33 in houseDroplet10/K/29AR15P/9K-9Accumulation on floorNarrow (storage?) Room 10/K/29 in houseDroplet+rods10/K/29AR23P/9K-9Accumulation on floorNarrow (storage?) Room 10/K/29 in houseDroplet+rods10/K/27AR15N/10K-9Striated surfacesLarge Room/Hall 10/K/27 in houseDroplet+rods10/K/68AR2O/9K-9Striated surfaces Room 10/K/68 in houseSlagView Table ImageFigure 2. Aerial photo of Level K-9, showing spaces with bronzeworking remains.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointNotably, there is no evidence for bronzeworking in Area K from Levels K-8 and K-7, which are contemporary with the 19th Egyptian Dynasty. However, the OI team found ceramic pot bellows (Figure 3: 2–3), one each in Tombs 3 and 1145A, located on the Eastern Slope of the tell, not far from Area K.9 Based on the ceramic assemblages from the tombs, they are roughly contemporary with Levels K-9 to K-7 (=OI Strata VIII–VIIB).Figure 3. Pot bellows from Area K, Reg. No. 12/K/130/VS1 (1) and from the tombs on the Eastern Slope, excavated by the OI team (2–3).View Large ImageDownload PowerPointThe metallurgical remains from Levels K-6, K-5, and K-4 have already been reported.10 The bronzeworking debris in Level K-6 included several crucible fragments found mainly in Square N/10, in an open space to the west of a domestic building (Figure 4). The fragment of a hitherto unpublished pot bellows, recently found in the same area in the course of baulk removal, also belongs to this level (Figure 3:1). In Level K-5, metallurgical debris, including crucible fragments, tuyères, and waste products (see description below), was found in Squares M–N/9–10 (Figure 5:2–4, 6–7). Analysis of the sediments in the western section of the area showed significant concentrations of copper related to this level. Metallurgical activity in Level K-4 (=OI Stratum VIA) is questionable, as the metallurgical debris may have been residual from the Level K-5 activity.Figure 4. Plan of Levels K-6 (a) and K-5 (b). The circles mark the areas where bronzeworking debris was found, including pot bellows, crucible and tuyère fragments, and waste products.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointFigure 5. Metalworking paraphernalia associated with metalworking in Areas K and Q: Crucible from Level K-10/K-9, Reg. No. 08/K/33/AR45 (1); crucibles from Level K-6, Reg. No. 02/K/44/AR1 (2), Reg. No. 02/K/39/AR2 (3) and Reg. No. 02/K/52/AR6 (4); vessel from Area Q, Reg. No. 12/Q/125/2 (5); tuyères from Area K, Reg. No. 02/K/17/AR6 (6), Reg. No. 02/K/47/AR2.2 (7); tuyère from Area Q, Reg. No. 12/Q/128/2 (8).View Large ImageDownload PowerPointIn Area Q, located just to the west of Area K (Figure 1), several bronze droplets and an amorphous bronze chunk were found in Locus 12/Q/26, a floor of Level Q-5 (=OI Stratum VB, or transitional VB/ VA-IVB) (Figures 6 and 7:d). These finds may suggest that the location of bronzeworking had shifted slightly to the west during this time. It is notable that remains of ironworking were also found on this floor, as detailed below.Figure 6. Aerial photo of Area Q after the 2014 excavation season. A sequence of hearths and associated tabun-ovens were uncovered east of Building 12/Q/99.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointFigure 7. Bronze- and ironworking remains from Area Q: Iron slag cake (a); magnet with hammerscales collected during the 2014 excavations in Area Q (b); iron slag cake from Level Q-5 (c); bronze droplets from the same context (d).View Large ImageDownload PowerPointIronworkingIron production remains were found in Area Q; here we discuss remains from Levels Q-5 and Q-4. The former features a large, well-constructed pillared building surrounded by domestic units. In the latter phase, this building went out of its primary use and was converted into several rooms and open spaces. The earliest metallurgical remains related to Level Q-5 comprise a single iron slag cake found in Locus 10/Q/68 (Figures 6 and 7:c). This locus marks the continuation of the above-mentioned Floor 12/Q/26, also associated with Level Q-5 (=OI Stratum VB, or transitional VB/VA–IVB), on which several bronze droplets were found, indicating that iron and bronze were worked side by side in Level Q-4 (=OI Stratum VA–IVB). In addition, in the northern part of Building 12/Q/99, a dark layer of sediments was found, approximately 10 cm thick and containing a considerable amount of charcoal (Locus 12/Q/81). It covered at least three column bases of the initial phase of the building (Q-5), and was therefore associated with secondary re-use of this space (Figure 8a). The excavation of the black layer included systematic sampling of the sediments (Figure 8b). The samples were analyzed using a Bruker (Tracer III-V) pXRF in order to identify possible metallurgical contamination. Copper concentrations in wt% were calculated using a specifically made calibration curve, produced by adding known amounts of copper oxide to typical Megiddo archaeological sediments, and were compared to control samples representing the naturally-occurring background levels. 11 For each of the sediment samples, we also measured the magnetic fraction, i.e., the wt% of magnetic flakes formed in the process of iron forging. These flakes, denoted hammerscales, were collected using a strong magnet. The results showed that the black sediments contained higher concentrations of both hammerscales (i.e., "magnetic fraction") and copper contamination with respect to control samples (Figure 9), indicating that this layer contained the remains of both iron- and bronzeworking.Figure 8. (a) Aerial photo of Building 12/Q/99 in Area Q where evidence of iron working was found. The extent of the "black layer" is indicated in red. The locations of the square tuyère fragments (Figure 5:8) and the vessel/crucible (Figure 5:5) are marked as well. (b) An installation like a tabun-oven was exposed south of the building. A photo of the "black layer" in the course of sampling.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointFigure 9. Analyses of sediments from the "black layer" in Building 12/Q/99 in Area Q obtained by pXRF. The plot shows copper concentrations against the magnetic fraction (in weight percent), measured for both sediment samples collected from the "black layer" as well as control samples.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointIn order to determine whether this layer represents in situ metallurgical activity, a micromorphological investigation of the sediments was undertaken, a method widely used in archaeological research.12 For this purpose, three blocks of sediment were removed from the northern and western sections of Square C/7 (the northern part of the building). The results showed that this was probably not the original context of deposition of the sediment. Typically, an area where in situ burning takes place is expected to include a substrate showing evidence of heat, and the burnt organic remains (in the case of wood as fuel) are expected to include both charcoal and ash. In the studied feature, however, there was no evidence of a heated substrate, and there was almost no ash despite the presence of large amounts of wood charcoal. The charcoal was randomly oriented and associated with fragments of chalk/limestone (Figure 10). This charcoal and chalk pile also included fragments of unheated bones and occasional fragments of siliceous slag. The overall microstructure of the sediment was highly porous which, considered together with the random orientations, indicate that the black layer may have resulted from secondary dumping of the burnt remains, probably originating from the area east of the building (see below).Figure 10. (a) Scan of a thin section produced from the central part of the black sediment feature (width is 4.2 cm). The black particles are wood charcoal and the white particles are chalk. Note the aggregated nature of the sediment. (b) Scan of a thin section produced from the edge of the black sediment feature (width is 4.2 cm). The black feature is at the center of the image, overlying and overlain by dense brown sediment with anthropogenic debris. Note the absence of large chalk fragments and general laminated appearance. (c) Microphotograph representing the general microscopic appearance of the black sediments in the center of the feature (frame length is 7.2 mm). Note the angular charred wood fragments. Gray colored material is chalk powder (possibly burnt) and gray-brown fragments are burnt soil and/or pottery. Note the black capping of fine charcoal on top of the angular brown (possibly pottery fragment) indicating small-scale water flow within the black sediment. The white areas are voids, i.e., the material is dominated by coarse fragments of burnt wood, chalk, and soil that are not bridged or encapsulated within a sediment groundmass. This spongy microstructure, together with the angularity of charcoal and chalk fragments, indicates little if any transport/reworking. The absence of wood ash indicates that burning did not occur in situ, suggesting this material is the result of dumping of coarse by-products of metallurgical activity that took place elsewhere. (d) Microphotograph representing the general microscopic appearance of the black sediments at the edge of the feature (frame length is 7.2 mm). Note that the charcoal fragments are very small relative to those found at the center of the feature, forming thin black stringers. The stringers are encapsulated by groundmass sediment that is dominated by calcite. These observations suggest that the edge of the feature formed through hyperconcentrated flow of fines (i.e., very low flow energy) from the center of the feature to the edge where sedimentation of the fines formed alternation of calcite-rich and charcoal-rich microscopic laminae. The evidence for flow in this locality further indicates that the black sediment was exposed to rain in an unroofed area.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointThe micromorphology additionally provided evidence of water-lain fine charcoal micro-layers, in which the black layer thins away from the center of the pile. This pattern indicates that the area was not protected from rain, supporting the stratigraphic field observation regarding the building's secondary re-use (including partial abandonment) during which the defunct column bases were covered over and the space remained unroofed.Immediately to the south, but within the same building and level, a couple of tuyère fragments (square in cross-section) were found at approximately the same elevation (Figure together with a ceramic vessel (Figure The of the vessel was not but analysis showed copper contamination in the than of this suggesting that it was used as a also at approximately the same an installation surrounded by several iron objects was exposed just the southern of the the 2014 excavation considerable evidence of iron working was also unearthed just the eastern of Building 12/Q/99 (Figure A sequence of hearths associated with dark debris was exposed in Levels Q-5 to mainly in Squares iron slag and fragments from Level and from Level as well as tuyère fragments, hammerscales, iron and charcoal (Figure These hearths were found in to a sequence of large, results show that the sediment from the hearths was by that both copper and iron were worked in this Based on these we can that ironworking took place in this area in Iron IIA, alongside just the located only to the iron production in Level Q-5 east of Building 12/Q/99, with its the black layer the which probably originated in the adjacent to that metalworking in Level Q-4 continued after the building was no in primary ironworking remains in this area were already by the first of Megiddo, one an iron in the more northern of two rooms just the eastern of the courtyard of only from the of the black layer in Area Q. In this a considerable of iron as well as slag and material as of iron and The and were found together with ash and iron fragments. Based on and with the of the these remains to be contemporary with the Iron iron- and bronzeworking in Area and of crucibles from Area K were made of coarse with a of as indicated by did not at the the a black porous layer was formed at a higher from the between the and the Analysis of in the crucible layer that copper was and that the bronzesmiths were not in bronze but possibly in copper with as on the thick of the crucible rim fragments and the of the (Figure it that most of the Stratum K-6 fragments to open This of crucible is known from Age and also in Iron contexts at and the Level K-10/K-9 fragment in to have to a of this of crucible have been found in the southern in and in an context (possibly Stratum of the Late Bronze at Tel In crucibles have been found at as and the cm in and 10 cm are than the Note that the vessel from Area Q (Figure as a crucible based on the copper contamination of its is in and also has an low to its pot bellows mentioned from the tombs on the Eastern Slope and from Area K are all than which have been by from the tombs (Figure have and a the objects have been found in and as well as in northern no ceramic pot bellows have been found in Area Q, the presence of tuyères the use of It is that during the Iron the latter were made of material to no ceramic have been found in with ironworking at Megiddo or in the southern tuyères from Area K K-6 to are made of with amounts of and are also with a of coarse analysis that most of the tuyères were in to the crucibles from Level This may suggest in the production of the used in the Levels K-6 to K-4 bronze at the very least in the of tuyères from Area K are in cm in and to a (Figure The central from to in order to from in from the are no of and slag at any of the suggesting no between the tuyère and the has been to be than tuyères are known from bronzeworking contexts related to the IIA, at as Tel and A single tuyère of the was at The tuyères from Area Q are square in which is typical of ironworking (Figure tuyères have been found in ironworking contexts related to the Iron at Tel and in of waste products using a that droplets are bronze with an microstructure, amorphous are in microstructure, different in each The latter include partial products as and which from the during or at the end of the and were therefore the droplets and the amorphous are formed in the use of open production remains at Megiddo include hammerscales, iron and slag The latter are formed at the of hearths associated with the of or iron objects, and therefore indicate both and of Bronze and Iron and order to trace the development of iron we have an of bronze and iron tools and weapons from Iron Age Megiddo retrieved through the 2014 excavation The include only well-stratified and material from the OI as well as and unpublished material from the recent Tel Aviv University Megiddo has yielded numerous metal objects from the Iron this of on contexts the to a of The fact that bronze was and that iron to an are two of the an can only a very general and relative and only be as a of the shows the of all the objects, in Iron as no iron objects at Megiddo this (which in the late shows only objects that were as tools or of bronze iron objects from different at all objects (a) and weapons only Large ImageDownload to both (Figures and iron during Iron I in small bronze was During Iron IIA, iron specifically in the and shows that in Iron IIA, iron of all It can be that in both the of iron objects and in the of iron in to there was a considerable after Iron Age This is both from the general (Figure and from the of tools and weapons (Figure based on a small the of only samples to suggest that iron production during Iron was related to the local The at hand is to determine the nature of production during Iron It is however, that the of the city at the end of this by the iron production did not at the same level of and bronze its metal hoards were found in to each other the southern edge of the is a of bronze objects found by the OI team in Area Locus to Iron a hoard of bronze and iron objects unearthed during the in Area Q, is related to Level Based on the of metal objects and the of these two hoards to the metalworking contexts in Areas K and Q, we as possible products of this metallurgical from Locus of bronze objects was found in a domestic area of Area Locus (Figure According to the there were at least bronze in this including two three two and a single The Locus to Stratum between its two and the and based on that they were produced by a single during the of Stratum

Ancient history · Archaeology · Bronze · Metalworking · Ancient Near East History · Archaeology and ancient environmental studies · Archaeology and Historical Studies · History

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