Fergus I M Craik
Biographic Data
| ID | 169361 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Fergus I M Craik |
| GIVEN NAMES | Fergus I M |
| FAMILY NAME | Craik |
| SIGNATURE | CRAIK F I M |
| AFFILIATIONS | Baycrest Hospital |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-8073-3236 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 35 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 12 |
| WORKS AS AUTHOR | 34 |
| WORKS AS EDITOR | 1 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1964 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2025 |
| H-INDEX | 1 |
Encoding Perceptual Features in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott Paradigm
Previous studies have shown that the incidence of false memories in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm is reduced when studied words are accompanied by their pictures or images and also reduced when monitoring activities are enhanced at retrieval. In the present experiment, studied words were accompanied by perceptual features to be learned (word color and location on the screen), and monitoring at retrieval was enhanced by asking participants…
Endel Tulving (1927–2023)
This article presents an obituary for Endel Tulving. Tulving's educational and professional careers are summarized. His work in the field of human memory is detailed. It is noted that Tulving's look at the field of verbal learning in the late 1950s persuaded him that the dominant associative tradition missed many important aspects of human memory. His research found that at the time of retrieval, memory for the original event may be successfully …
How does bilingualism modify cognitive function? Attention to the mechanism
Years of Cognitive Aging Theory
OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this Introduction to the Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences special issue on "50 Years of Cognitive Aging Theory" are to provide a brief overview of cognitive aging research prior to 1965 and to highlight significant developments in cognitive aging theory over the last 50 years. METHOD: Historical and recent theories of cognitive aging were reviewed, with a particular focus on those not directly covered b…
George Mandler (1924–2016)
Presents an obituary for George Mandler, who died in London on May 6, 2016 at the age of 91. Mandler was one of the pioneers of the cognitive revolution in psychology. He was instrumental in moving the study of human learning from notions based largely on associations to a view of memory as an organized, nested hierarchical structure. Mandler was also a major proponent of the dual-process theory of recognition memory, in which general feelings of…
Bilingualism
The Effect of Bilingualism on Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment
Previous reports have found that lifelong bilingualism is associated with a delay in the onset of dementia, including Dementia of the Alzheimer’s Type (DAT). Because amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) is often a transition stage between normal aging and DAT, our aim in this paper was to establish whether this delay in symptom onset for bilinguals would also be seen in the onset of symptoms of aMCI and whether this delay would be consistent…
Mind and the Frontal LobesCognition, Behavior, and Brain Imaging
In the past 25 years, the frontal lobes have dominated human neuroscience research. Functional neuroimaging studies have revealed their importance to brain networks involved in nearly every aspect of mental and cognitive functioning. Studies of patients with focal brain lesions have expanded on early case study evidence of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive changes associated with frontal lobe brain damage. The role of frontal lobe function and…
Mind and the frontal lobes
In the past 25 years, the frontal lobes have dominated human neuroscience research. Functional neuroimaging studies have revealed their importance to brain networks involved in nearly every aspect of mental and cognitive functioning. Studies of patients with focal brain lesions have expanded on early case study evidence of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive changes associated with frontal lobe brain damage. The role of frontal lobe function and…
Cognitive and Linguistic Processing in the Bilingual Mind
The article reports research investigating the way bilingualism affects cognitive and linguistic performance across the life span. In general, bilingualism appears to have both benefits and costs. Regarding costs, bilinguals typically have lower formal language proficiency than monolinguals do; for example, they have smaller vocabularies and weaker access to lexical items. The benefits, however, are that bilinguals exhibit enhanced executive cont…
Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease
OBJECTIVES: There is strong epidemiologic evidence to suggest that older adults who maintain an active lifestyle in terms of social, mental, and physical engagement are protected to some degree against the onset of dementia. Such factors are said to contribute to cognitive reserve, which acts to compensate for the accumulation of amyloid and other brain pathologies. We present evidence that lifelong bilingualism is a further factor contributing t…
Does bilingualism help memory? Competing effects of verbal ability and executive control
Two studies are reported that explore the effect of bilingualism on memory performance. Following previous reports of a bilingual advantage in executive control that sometimes shows a greater advantage in older adults, we compared younger and older monolinguals and bilinguals on a memory paradigm that yielded separate measures of familiarity and recollection. As expected, there were no consistent effects in familiarity, but there were age and lan…
Bilingual Minds
Lexical access in bilinguals
Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals.
Ninety-six participants, who were younger (20 years) or older (68 years) adults and either monolingual or bilingual, completed tasks assessing working memory, lexical retrieval, and executive control. Younger participants performed most of the tasks better than older participants, confirming the effect of aging on these processes. The effect of language group was different for each type of task: Monolinguals and bilinguals performed similarly on …
Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia
Cognition through the lifespan
Name and Face Learning in Older Adults
Many older adults are interested in strategies to help them learn new names. We examined the learning conditions that provide maximal benefit to name and face learning. In Experiment 1, consistent with levels-of-processing theory, name recall and recognition by 20 younger and 20 older adults was poorest with physical processing, intermediate with phonemic processing, and best with semantic processing. In Experiment 2, name and face learning in 20…
Effect of bilingualism on cognitive control in the Simon task
The Oxford handbook of memory
Bilingualism, Aging, and Cognitive Control
Previous work has shown that bilingualism is associated with more effective controlled processing in children; the assumption is that the constant management of 2 competing languages enhances executive functions (E. Bialystok, 2001). The present research attempted to determine whether this bilingual advantage persists for adults and whether bilingualism attenuates the negative effects of aging on cognitive control in older adults. Three studies a…
Levels of processing
In this article I first briefly survey some enduring legacies of the Craik and Lockhart (1972) article on levels of processing (LOP) and address some common criticisms. In the next section I discuss whether memory can be regarded as "pure processing", the role of short-term memory in an LOP framework, measurement of "depth" in LOP, encoding-retrieval interactions, the concept of consolidation, and the reality of "levels" of processing. In the fin…
Effects of Time of Day on Age Differences in Working Memory
This study investigated the hypothesis that the influence of time of day on the efficiency of working memory is greater for older than younger adults. Groups of younger and older adults performed a working memory task on 4 consecutive days, twice in the morning and twice in the evening. Objective (body temperature) and subjective (alertness ratings) measures of arousal were taken during each session. Temperature increased across the day equally f…
The Oxford handbook of memory
Repetition-Induced Belief in the Elderly
This research examines the impact of age-related deficits in recognition and source memory on repetition-induced increases in belief in fictitious statements (the “truth effect”). Young and elderly subjects made recognition-memory judgments and rated the credibility of new and previously presented statements. Experiment 1 assessed the level of memory impairment in the elderly, as compared to the young, and its influence on the truth effect. The e…
Repetition-Induced Belief in the Elderly
This research examines the impact of age-related deficits in recognition and source memory on repetition-induced increases in belief in fictitious statements (the “truth effect”). Young and elderly subjects made recognition-memory judgments and rated the credibility of new and previously presented statements. Experiment 1 assessed the level of memory impairment in the elderly, as compared to the young, and its influence on the truth effect. The e…
The Effect of Bilingualism on Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment
Previous reports have found that lifelong bilingualism is associated with a delay in the onset of dementia, including Dementia of the Alzheimer’s Type (DAT). Because amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) is often a transition stage between normal aging and DAT, our aim in this paper was to establish whether this delay in symptom onset for bilinguals would also be seen in the onset of symptoms of aMCI and whether this delay would be consistent…
Effects of Time of Day on Age Differences in Working Memory
This study investigated the hypothesis that the influence of time of day on the efficiency of working memory is greater for older than younger adults. Groups of younger and older adults performed a working memory task on 4 consecutive days, twice in the morning and twice in the evening. Objective (body temperature) and subjective (alertness ratings) measures of arousal were taken during each session. Temperature increased across the day equally f…
Age Differences in the Temporal Integration of Language
Results of a previous experiment suggested that old subjects are no worse than young subjects at remembering meaningless verbal material but are at a disadvantage when dealing with meaningful material. This result contradicts established views, so two short experiments were carried out to examine age differences in short-term memory for various types of verbal material. The results confirmed the original observation that old subjects are at a gre…
An Observed Age Difference in Responses to a Personality Inventory
The two parts of the Heron Inventory give scores on two dimensions—emotional adjustment and sociability—which are held to be independent. However, results from a small sample study indicated that there was a strong positive association between the dimensions in a ‘young’ group but that no such relationship held in an ‘old’ group. This finding was confirmed for a group of 240 men ranging in age from 20 to 79. It was not confirmed in a similar grou…
Age Differences in the Temporal Integration of Language
Results of a previous experiment suggested that old subjects are no worse than young subjects at remembering meaningless verbal material but are at a disadvantage when dealing with meaningful material. This result contradicts established views, so two short experiments were carried out to examine age differences in short-term memory for various types of verbal material. The results confirmed the original observation that old subjects are at a gre…
Age and Intelligence Differences in Coding and Retrieval of Word Lists
Word lists of several orders of approximation to English were presented for immediate free recall to young and old adult subjects. The total recall scores were broken down into ‘number of chunks recalled’ and ‘number of words per chunk’. The ‘chunks recalled’ measure is taken here to reflect retrieval efficiency: scores were lower in older subjects but were unaffected by Mill Hill Vocabulary level. The ‘words per chunk’ score is interpreted as a …
Levels of processing
Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory.
Ten experiments were designed to explore the levels of processing framework for human memory research proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972). The basic notions are that the episodic memory trace may be thought of as a rather automatic by-product of operations carried out by the cognitive system and that the durability of the trace is a positive function of of processing, where depth refers to greater degrees of semantic involvement. Subjects were …
Levels of processing
These comments take up the major issues raised in Eysenck's (1978) critique of Craik & Lockhart (1972): The problem of circularity in the definition of ‘depth’, the distinction between qualitative and quantitative differences in encoding, and the relationship between the concepts of depth, strength and elaboration. It is claimed that despite certain weaknesses, the original formulation possesses considerable heuristic value
Perspectives on Memory Research
Obituary
The effects of divided attention on encoding and retrieval processes in human memory.
The authors examined the effects of divided attention (DA) at encoding and retrieval in free recall, cued recall, and recognition memory in 4 experiments. Lists of words or word pairs were presented auditorily and recalled orally; the secondary task was a visual continuous reaction-time (RT) task with manual responses. At encoding, DA was associated with large reductions in memory performance, but small increases in RT; trade-offs between memory …
Levels-of-Processing Effects on a Variety of Memory Tasks
Repetition-Induced Belief in the Elderly
This research examines the impact of age-related deficits in recognition and source memory on repetition-induced increases in belief in fictitious statements (the “truth effect”). Young and elderly subjects made recognition-memory judgments and rated the credibility of new and previously presented statements. Experiment 1 assessed the level of memory impairment in the elderly, as compared to the young, and its influence on the truth effect. The e…
The Oxford handbook of memory
Levels of processing
In this article I first briefly survey some enduring legacies of the Craik and Lockhart (1972) article on levels of processing (LOP) and address some common criticisms. In the next section I discuss whether memory can be regarded as "pure processing", the role of short-term memory in an LOP framework, measurement of "depth" in LOP, encoding-retrieval interactions, the concept of consolidation, and the reality of "levels" of processing. In the fin…
Effects of Time of Day on Age Differences in Working Memory
This study investigated the hypothesis that the influence of time of day on the efficiency of working memory is greater for older than younger adults. Groups of younger and older adults performed a working memory task on 4 consecutive days, twice in the morning and twice in the evening. Objective (body temperature) and subjective (alertness ratings) measures of arousal were taken during each session. Temperature increased across the day equally f…
Bilingualism, Aging, and Cognitive Control
Previous work has shown that bilingualism is associated with more effective controlled processing in children; the assumption is that the constant management of 2 competing languages enhances executive functions (E. Bialystok, 2001). The present research attempted to determine whether this bilingual advantage persists for adults and whether bilingualism attenuates the negative effects of aging on cognitive control in older adults. Three studies a…
Effect of bilingualism on cognitive control in the Simon task
The Oxford handbook of memory
Cognition through the lifespan
Name and Face Learning in Older Adults
Many older adults are interested in strategies to help them learn new names. We examined the learning conditions that provide maximal benefit to name and face learning. In Experiment 1, consistent with levels-of-processing theory, name recall and recognition by 20 younger and 20 older adults was poorest with physical processing, intermediate with phonemic processing, and best with semantic processing. In Experiment 2, name and face learning in 20…
Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia
Lexical access in bilinguals
Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals.
Ninety-six participants, who were younger (20 years) or older (68 years) adults and either monolingual or bilingual, completed tasks assessing working memory, lexical retrieval, and executive control. Younger participants performed most of the tasks better than older participants, confirming the effect of aging on these processes. The effect of language group was different for each type of task: Monolinguals and bilinguals performed similarly on …
Bilingual Minds
Cognitive and Linguistic Processing in the Bilingual Mind
The article reports research investigating the way bilingualism affects cognitive and linguistic performance across the life span. In general, bilingualism appears to have both benefits and costs. Regarding costs, bilinguals typically have lower formal language proficiency than monolinguals do; for example, they have smaller vocabularies and weaker access to lexical items. The benefits, however, are that bilinguals exhibit enhanced executive cont…
Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease
OBJECTIVES: There is strong epidemiologic evidence to suggest that older adults who maintain an active lifestyle in terms of social, mental, and physical engagement are protected to some degree against the onset of dementia. Such factors are said to contribute to cognitive reserve, which acts to compensate for the accumulation of amyloid and other brain pathologies. We present evidence that lifelong bilingualism is a further factor contributing t…
Psychology (33 works) · Cognitive psychology (27 works) · Cognition (25 works) · Neuroscience (18 works) · Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism (15 works) · Developmental psychology (12 works) · Memory Processes and Influences (11 works) · Neuroscience of multilingualism (10 works) · Cognitive science (9 works) · Computer Science (8 works)