A Gelman
Biographic Data
| ID | 20729 |
|---|---|
| NAME | A Gelman |
| GIVEN NAMES | A |
| FAMILY NAME | Gelman |
| SIGNATURE | GELMAN A |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of Michigan |
| ORCID | 0000-0003-1005-2691 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 104 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 336 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 104 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1978 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2025 |
| H-INDEX | 9 |
The role of exceptions in children's and adults' judgments about generic statements
Evaluating the reliability of a revised two-step assessment of sex and gender in adolescents and adults
This study assessed the reliability of an updated two-step measure of gender and sex. Gender diverse youths ( n = 610, Mean age = 15 years, SD = 2) and their parents ( n = 606, M age = 48, SD = 5) completed a measure of sex and gender twice with a time delay of 30-60 minutes. Reliability was high, with 95% or higher agreement for sex and gender for both parents and youths. Reliability was highest for parents and for cisgender and transgender boys…
What we owe to ourselves: Investigating people’s sense of obligations to the self
Core to our moral sense is that we have obligations toward others, such that we are expected to curb self-interests in light of obligations to other individuals and society at large. But do we also have obligations to ourselves ? Motivated by this underexplored question in moral psychology, we conducted six studies ( N = 1,860) to systematically investigate how people view obligations to the self. Study 1 found that most participants endorsed the…
Discovering the world of viruses: Testing the influence of anthropomorphic representations on children’s learning about Covid-19
Having a robust understanding of viruses is critical for children to understand the COVID-19 pandemic and the protective measures recommended to promote their safety. However, viral transmission is not part of current educational standards in the United States, so children likely must learn about it through informal means, such as media and conversations with caregivers-contexts that often animate and anthropomorphize viruses. In this registered …
How peer relationships influence adolescents’ reasoning about theft-based moral transgressions
Two studies ( N total = 1,153) investigated how adolescents reason about whether to report a transgression committed by a close friend versus distant classmate. In Study 1, sixth-ninth graders ( M age = 12.36 years, SD age = 1.14 years; 55% girls, 44% boys; 2% Asian, 63% Black, 13% Latino, 7% multiracial, 7% White; low-income urban schools) were less willing to report close friends than distant classmates, for both high- and low-severity thefts. …
Testimony and observation of statistical evidence interact in adults' and children's category-based induction
The social aspects of illness: Children's and parents' explanations of the relation between social categories and illness in a predominantly white U.S. sample
The COVID-19 pandemic in the United States has had a disproportionate impact on Black, low-income, and elderly individuals. We recruited 175 predominantly white children ages 5–12 and their parents (N = 112) and asked which of two individuals (differing in age, gender, race, social class, or personality) was more likely to get sick with either COVID-19 or the common cold and why. Children and parents reported that older adults were more likely to…
Mind-Body Dualism, Health, and Well-being in University Students
Mind-body dualism conceptualizes mind and body as distinct, but there are different ways that dualism may be instantiated. In this study, we examined how Hierarchical Dualism (the belief that mind and body are distinct, and the mind is superior) and Mutual-Influence Dualism (the belief that mind and body are separate but interrelate) related to health behaviors and mental health in three student samples: exclusively queer, exclusively straight, a…
Testing the effects of congruence in adult multilingual acquisition with implications for creole genesis
“It kinda has like a mind”: Children's and parents' beliefs concerning viral disease transmission for Covid-19 and the common cold
What makes Voldemort tick? Children's and adults' reasoning about the nature of villains
Learning the rules of the game: The role of generic “you” and “we” in shaping children's interpretations of norms
A critical skill of childhood is learning social norms. We examine whether the generic pronouns “you” and “we,” which frame information as applying to people in general rather than to a specific individual, facilitate this process. In one pre-registered experiment conducted online between 2020 and 2021, children 4- to 9-year-old primarily living in the midwestern U.S. (N = 146, 75 girls, 71 boys, Mage = 7.14, SD = 1.69, 82% White) interpreted act…
Changing beliefs about gender: The relation between contact with gender nonconforming individuals and gender essentialism
Increasing numbers of individuals are openly identifying outside of the gender binary, which may have broader effects on how people view gender. Little research has examined how contact with gender nonconforming (GNC) individuals may influence others’ conceptualisations of gender. Through seven studies with 2,547 participants, we found that contact with GNC individuals corresponded to reduced gender essentialism. In two correlational studies, we …
Gender essentialism predicts prejudice against gender nonconformity in two cultural contexts
Gender-nonconforming children face a substantial amount of prejudice, making it important to investigate potential contributing factors. In a correlational study of 253 U.S. Midwestern and Pacific Northwestern 6- to 10-year-old gender-conforming children (Age M = 7.95, SD = 1.43; 54% girl, 46% boy; 77% White), we examined how gender essentialism (beliefs that gender is biological, discrete, informative, and immutable) and gender identity essentia…
She should get her own cat”: Parent‐child conversations about ownership and sharing
Women Versus Females: Gender Essentialism in Everyday Language
Preliminary evidence for progressions in ownership reasoning over the preschool period
Defining developmental progressions can be an important step in identifying developmental precursors and mechanisms of change, within and across areas of reasoning. In one exploratory study, we examine whether the development of children's thinking about ownership follows a systematic progression wherein some components emerge reliably before others. We examine this issue in a sample of 72 children: 40 older 2-year-olds, M age = 2.78 (.14); R = 2…
Social constructionist and essentialist beliefs about gender and race
Social constructionist beliefs posit that sociocultural forces shape power-stratified social categories, whereas essentialist beliefs posit that social categories are defined by an immutable, natural essence shared by category members. Across three studies, we developed and validated the Social Constructionist and Essentialist Beliefs Scale (SCEBS) to assess the latent structure of ontological beliefs about two social categories: gender and race.…
Children expect others to prefer handmade items
Although children frequently engage in creative activities (in which they make foods and objects by hand), the development and scope of children's thinking about handmade items is largely unexplored. In the present studies, we examined whether 4- to 12-year-old children at a local children's museum (54% girls, 46% boys; 51% White, 11% Asian/Asian American, 10% more than 1 group, 4% Latinx, 3% Black/African American, 18% did not report race/ethnic…
Formal explanations shape children’s representations of animal kinds and social groups
In certain domains, people represent some of an individual's properties (e.g., a tiger's ferocity), but not others (e.g., a tiger's being in the zoo), as stemming from the assumed "essence" of the individual's category. How do children identify which properties of an individual are essentialized and which are not? Here, we examine whether formal explanations-that is, explanations that appeal to category membership (e.g., "That's ferocious because…
What we would (but shouldn't) do for those we love: Universalism versus partiality in responding to others' moral transgressions
Should Individuals Think Like Their Group? A Descriptive-to-Prescriptive Tendency Toward Group-Based Beliefs
Across three pre-registered studies with children (ages 4–9) and adults (N = 303), we examined whether how a group is predicted evaluations of how group members should be (i.e., a descriptive-to-prescriptive tendency), under conditions in which the descriptive group norms entailed beliefs that were fact-based (Study 1), opinion-based (Study 2), and ideology-based (Study 3). Overall, participants tended to disapprove of individuals with beliefs th…
The Roles of Privacy and Trust in Children's Evaluations and Explanations of Digital Tracking
A “digital revolution” has introduced new privacy violations concerning access to information stored on electronic devices. The present two studies assessed how U.S. children ages 5–17 and adults (N = 416; 55% female; 67% white) evaluated those accessing digital information belonging to someone else, either location data (Study 1) or digital photos (Study 2). The trustworthiness of the tracker (Studies 1 and 2) and the privacy of the information …
To Give or to Receive? The Role of Giver Versus Receiver on Object Tracking and Object Preferences in Children and Adults
For adults, ownership is a concept that rests on principles and connections that apply broadly – whether the owner is the self or someone else, and whether the self is giver or receiver. The present studies tested whether preschool children likewise treat ownership in this abstract fashion. In Experiment 1, 20 children and 24 adults were assigned to be either “givers” or “receivers.” They were then asked to identify which items they and the resea…
Beyond Black and White: Conceptualizing and essentializing Black–White identity
Our data shed new light on the complexity of race concepts and essentialism and advance the psychological understanding of Black-White identity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)
Mapping the Mind: Domain Specificity In Cognition And Culture
Preface Domain specificity: an introduction Lawrence Hirschfeld and Susan Gelman Part I. General/Theoretical Approaches: 1. The modularity of thought Dan Sperber 2. Domain specificity and cultural variation are not inconsistent: lessons from number and music Rochel Gelman and Kimberly Brenneman Part II. Are Domains Theories?: 3. The theory theory Alison Gopkin and Henry Wellman 4. Thinking by children and scientists: false analogies and neglected…
Concepts and Folk Theories
Human cognition is characterized by enormous variability and structured by universal psychological constraints. The focus of this article is on the development of knowledge acquisition because it provides important insight into how the mind interprets new information and constructs new ways of understanding. We propose that mental content can be productively approached by examining the intuitive causal explanatory "theories" that people construct…
Determinants of Gender Essentialism in College Students
The importance of knowing a dodo is a bird: Categories and inferences in 2-year-old children
This study examined 2-year-old children's ability to make category-based inferences. Subjects were asked a series of questions that they could answer based on category membership, appearances, or both. In one condition, all pictures were named; in a second condition, none were named. Children performed well on prototypical pictures regardless of whether they were named; on atypical pictures, they performed better when category labels were provide…
Young children use motive information to make trait inferences
The present study investigates children's capacity to understand traits in a psychologically meaningful way. Participants included 18 individuals in each of 4 age groups: kindergarten (ages 5-6), 2nd grade (ages 7-8), 5th grade (ages 10-11), and adult. They heard a series of 6 short stories in which a main character performs an action based on a particular motive (positive, negative, or incidental) that results in either a positive or a negative …
Children's interpretation of generic noun phrases
Generic utterances (e.g., Cows say 'moo') have 2 distinctive semantic properties: (a) Generics are generally true, unlike indefinites (e.g., Bears live in caves is generic; I saw some bears in the cave is indefinite), and (b) generics need not be true of all category members, unlike universal quantifiers (e.g., every, each). This article examined whether preschool children and adults appreciate both these features, using a comprehension task (Stu…
Gender Essentialism in Children and Parents: Implications for the Development of Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Typed Preferences
Children's use of adult testimony to guide food selection
Picasso Paintings, Moon Rocks, and Hand-Written Beatles Lyrics: Adults' Evaluations of Authentic Objects
Authentic objects are those that have an historical link to a person, event, time, or place of some significance (e.g., original Picasso painting; gown worn by Princess Diana; your favorite baby blanket). The current study examines everyday beliefs about authentic objects, with three primary goals: to determine the scope of adults' evaluation of authentic objects, to examine such evaluation in two distinct cultural settings, and to determine whet…
Conceptual and linguistic biases in children's word learning
Four studies examined the influence of essentialist information and perceptual similarity on preschoolers' interpretations of labels. In Study 1, 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds were less likely to interpret 2 labels for animals as referring to mutually exclusive categories: when the animals were said to share internal, rather than superficial, properties and when the animals were perceptually similar rather than dissimilar. In Study 2, neither internal …
Beliefs about the origins of human psychological traits
The development of children's reasoning about the origins of human psychological traits was investigated across 4 studies with a total of 316 participants ranging in age from kindergartners to 5th graders and adults. The primary methodology was a switched-at-birth task (L. A. Hirschfeld, 1995), which poses a hypothetical nature-nurture conflict. Two major issues were addressed: (a) the extent to which psychological traits are viewed as a product …
A Cross-Cultural Developmental Analysis of Children's and Adults' Understanding of Illness in South Asia (India) and the United States
Forty-one Indian and American preschoolers, 48 first graders, 41 third graders, 43 fifth graders, and 48 college students were presented with vignettes that described symptoms of illnesses. Participants in both countries were presented with a biological, moral, psychological, and irrelevant choice for each of the illnesses. Results indicated that across all ages in both countries, the biological model was the most prominent. However, with increas…
Who am I? The role of moral beliefs in children's and adults' understanding of identity
More than meets the eye: Young children’s trust in claims that defy their perceptions
Children and adults often encounter counterintuitive claims that defy their perceptions. We examined factors that influence children's acceptance of such claims. Children ages 3-6 years were shown familiar objects (e.g., a rock), were asked to identify the objects, and were then told that each object was something else (e.g., that the rock was soap). For some children, informants explicitly stated that the objects were different from what they ap…
Changing beliefs about gender: The relation between contact with gender nonconforming individuals and gender essentialism
Increasing numbers of individuals are openly identifying outside of the gender binary, which may have broader effects on how people view gender. Little research has examined how contact with gender nonconforming (GNC) individuals may influence others’ conceptualisations of gender. Through seven studies with 2,547 participants, we found that contact with GNC individuals corresponded to reduced gender essentialism. In two correlational studies, we …
Generics in society
This article examines two interrelated issues: (i) how considering generics within their social contexts of use contributes to theories of generics, and (ii) how contemporary work on generics provides promising directions for the study of language as an aspect of social life. Examining the function of generics in meaningful interactions stands in contrast to standard treatments, which consider generics as isolated, context-free propositions. Addi…
Children eat more food when they prepare it themselves
You” and “I” in a foreign land: The persuasive force of generic-you
Can White children grow up to be Black? Children’s reasoning about the stability of emotion and race
Recent research questions whether children conceptualize race as stable. We examined participants' beliefs about the relative stability of race and emotion, a temporary feature. Participants were White adults and children ages 5-6 and 9-10 (Study 1) and racial minority children ages 5-6 (Study 2). Participants were presented with target children who were happy or angry and Black or White and were asked to indicate which of 2 adults (a race but no…
This cat has nine lives? Children's memory for genericity in language
Generic noun phrases ("Birds lay eggs") are important for expressing knowledge about abstract kinds. The authors hypothesized that genericity would be part of gist memory, such that young children would appropriately recall whether sentences were presented as generic or specific. In 4 experiments, preschoolers and college students (N = 280) heard a series of sentences in either generic form (e.g., "Bears climb trees") or specific form (e.g., "Thi…
Vitalism in naive biological thinking
Vitalism is the belief that internal bodily organs have agency and that they transmit or exchange a vital force or energy. Three experiments investigated the use of vitalistic explanations for biological phenomena by 5- and 10-year-old English-speaking children and adults, focusing on 2 components: the notion that bodily organs have intentions and the notion that some life force or energy is transmitted. The original Japanese finding of vitalisti…
Social constructionist and essentialist beliefs about gender and race
Social constructionist beliefs posit that sociocultural forces shape power-stratified social categories, whereas essentialist beliefs posit that social categories are defined by an immutable, natural essence shared by category members. Across three studies, we developed and validated the Social Constructionist and Essentialist Beliefs Scale (SCEBS) to assess the latent structure of ontological beliefs about two social categories: gender and race.…
Beyond Black and White: Conceptualizing and essentializing Black–White identity
Our data shed new light on the complexity of race concepts and essentialism and advance the psychological understanding of Black-White identity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)
South African Children's Understanding of Aids and Flu: Investigating Conceptual Understanding of Cause, Treatment and Prevention
The present study examined children's understanding of illness in a peri-urban community in South Africa where AIDS is prevalent (N = 138). Results suggest that children were surprisingly knowledgeable about AIDS at an early age, and may have even erroneously analogized from AIDS to the flu. Furthermore, all age groups attributed different causes for AIDS (transmitted by blood) and flu (casual contagion). However, although factual knowledge about…
Do children endorse psychosocial factors in the transmission of illness and disgust
The present studies examined beliefs concerning the impact of psychosocial factors in the transmission of contagious illness, injuries, and disgust. In Studies 1 and 2, participants ranging from preschoolers through adults judged the likelihood that a character would get sick (or injured) after being contaminated by another individual who was either of no stated relation to the character or who was a best friend, a disliked person, or a family me…
Toward the Study of Postal Graffiti: Text and Context in an Adolescent Girls' Genre
Compound Nouns and Category Structure in Young Children
Implicit contrast in adjectives vs. nouns: Implications for word-learning in preschoolers
On some views of language, when one uses a term to describe or label an object, a contrast is always implied. However, there is an important difference between nouns and adjectives in their contrastive use: adjectives imply a contrast between members of a single noun category, whereas nouns do not imply a contrast between members of a single adjective category. For example, describing a car as new suggests a contrast with other cars. However, lab…
Categories and induction in young children
The importance of knowing a dodo is a bird: Categories and inferences in 2-year-old children
This study examined 2-year-old children's ability to make category-based inferences. Subjects were asked a series of questions that they could answer based on category membership, appearances, or both. In one condition, all pictures were named; in a second condition, none were named. Children performed well on prototypical pictures regardless of whether they were named; on atypical pictures, they performed better when category labels were provide…
Cognitive Development: Foundational Theories of Core Domains
A revolution in the science of emotion has emerged in recent decades, with the potential to create a paradigm shift in decision theories. The research reveals that emotions constitute potent, pervasive, predictable, sometimes harmful and sometimes ...Read More
Children's gender‐ and age‐based categorization in similarity and induction tasks
The present studies examined children's and adults' preferences for gender‐ or age‐based categorization using similarity and inductive inference tasks. Four‐year‐olds, 6‐year‐olds, and adults looked at pictures of people and decided which of two was more like a target (similarity condition) or which shared a novel age‐ or gender‐related property with the target (inference condition). Age or gender‐based matches were possible. The results are cons…
Toward a topography of mind: An introduction to domain specificity
Over the past decades, a major challenge to a widely accepted view of the human mind has developed across several disciplines. According to a long predominant view, human beings are endowed with a general set of reasoning abilities that they bring to bear on any cognitive task, whatever its specific content. Thus, many have argued, a common set of processes apply to all thought, whether it involves solving mathematical problems, learning natural …
Essentialist beliefs in children: The acquisition of concepts and theories
In their first few years of life, children are making sense of the world at two levels at once: at the fine-grained level of everyday object categories (deciding which things are trees and which are dogs and which are cookies), and at a broader level that some have called commonsense “theories.” Both are remarkable achievements. First, consider categorization. If children's vocabulary is any indication, by the age of 6 they have carved up the wor…
Mapping the Mind: Domain Specificity In Cognition And Culture
Preface Domain specificity: an introduction Lawrence Hirschfeld and Susan Gelman Part I. General/Theoretical Approaches: 1. The modularity of thought Dan Sperber 2. Domain specificity and cultural variation are not inconsistent: lessons from number and music Rochel Gelman and Kimberly Brenneman Part II. Are Domains Theories?: 3. The theory theory Alison Gopkin and Henry Wellman 4. Thinking by children and scientists: false analogies and neglected…
Children's understanding of homonyms
Previous tasks have shown that preschool and early elementary school-children typically have trouble learning and identifying homonyms (Peters & Zaidel, 1980; Mazzocco, 1989). It is possible that a one-to-one mapping assumption or a lack of metalinguistic skills makes homonym learning and identification particularly difficult. In three experiments we examined a total of 60 three-year-olds' ability to pick out homonym pairs, and the extent to whic…
Overextensions in comprehension and production revisited: Preferential-looking in a study of dog, cat , and cow
This study investigated overextensions in comprehension and production using a new method (the preferential-looking paradigm) in which children ( N = 99, mean age (younger) = 1;9, mean age (older) = 2;3) were asked to find the referent that matched the label they were given. Both Real Referent (in which there was a match) and Anomalous (in which there was no match) trials were included, as well as nonverbal control trials. During the Real Referen…
Colour term knowledge in two-year-olds: Evidence for early competence
It is commonly believed that colour terms are acquired unusually slowly. However, several recent studies suggest that preschoolers have more colour term knowledge than previously believed. In two studies, we investigated the colour term knowledge of 49 two-year-olds and the influence of schooling on their colour term acquisition. Both studies revealed considerable knowledge in such young children. A longitudinal comparison of children with and wi…
Why is a pomegranate an apple ? The role of shape, taxonomic relatedness, and prior lexical knowledge in children's overextensions of apple and dog
Children's overextensions (e.g. referring to a pomegranate as apple ) raise intriguing questions regarding early word meanings. Specifically, how do object shape, taxonomic relatedness, and prior lexical knowledge influence children's overextensions? The present study sheds new light on this issue by presenting items that disentangle the three factors of shape, taxonomic category, and prior lexical knowledge, and by using a novel comprehension ta…
Peter W. Jusczyk, The discovery of spoken language . Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1997. Pp. 314
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Generic noun phrases in mother–child conversations
Generic noun phrases (e.g. Tigers are fierce) are of interest for their semantic properties: they capture ‘essential’ properties, are timeless, and are context-free. The present study examines use of generic noun phrases by preschool children and their mothers. Mother–child pairs were videotaped while looking through a book of animal pictures. Each page depicted either a single instance of a particular category (e.g. one crab) or multiple instanc…
Conceptual and linguistic biases in children's word learning
Four studies examined the influence of essentialist information and perceptual similarity on preschoolers' interpretations of labels. In Study 1, 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds were less likely to interpret 2 labels for animals as referring to mutually exclusive categories: when the animals were said to share internal, rather than superficial, properties and when the animals were perceptually similar rather than dissimilar. In Study 2, neither internal …
Young children use motive information to make trait inferences
The present study investigates children's capacity to understand traits in a psychologically meaningful way. Participants included 18 individuals in each of 4 age groups: kindergarten (ages 5-6), 2nd grade (ages 7-8), 5th grade (ages 10-11), and adult. They heard a series of 6 short stories in which a main character performs an action based on a particular motive (positive, negative, or incidental) that results in either a positive or a negative …
Putting the “Noun Bias” in Context: A Comparison of English and Mandarin
Recently, researchers have been debating whether children exhibit a universal “noun bias” when learning a first language. The present study compares the proportions of nouns and verbs in the early vocabularies of 24 English- and 24 Mandarin-speaking toddlers (M age = 20 months) and their mothers. Three different methods were used to measure the proportion of noun types, relative to verb types: controlled observations in three contexts (book readi…
Carrot-Eaters and Creature-Believers: The Effects of Lexicalization on Children's Inferences About Social Categories
This article examines how language affects children's inferences about novel social categories. We hypothesized that lexicalization (using a noun label to refer to someone who possesses a certain property) would influence children's inferences about other people. Specifically, we hypothesized that when a property is lexicalized, it is thought to be more stable over time and over contexts. One hundred fifteen children (5- and 7-year-olds) learned …
Emergence is what
The commentaries provide a thoughtful range of responses that reflect the existing theoretical diversity concerning explanations of language development. Below we clarify and amplify a few points from our original review that appeared to have been unclear
Buzzsaws and blueprints: What children need (or don't need) to learn language
Review essay on: B. M AC W HINNEY (ed.), The emergence of language . Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1999. An old joke that has been circulating for the past decade or so goes as follows: a biologist, a physicist, and a cognitive scientist were sitting around discussing the great achievements of their fields. The biologist waxed eloquent about the insights of Darwin's theory of evolution; the physicist expounded on the implications of Einstein's theory of g…
Vitalism in naive biological thinking
Vitalism is the belief that internal bodily organs have agency and that they transmit or exchange a vital force or energy. Three experiments investigated the use of vitalistic explanations for biological phenomena by 5- and 10-year-old English-speaking children and adults, focusing on 2 components: the notion that bodily organs have intentions and the notion that some life force or energy is transmitted. The original Japanese finding of vitalisti…
Beliefs about the origins of human psychological traits
The development of children's reasoning about the origins of human psychological traits was investigated across 4 studies with a total of 316 participants ranging in age from kindergartners to 5th graders and adults. The primary methodology was a switched-at-birth task (L. A. Hirschfeld, 1995), which poses a hypothetical nature-nurture conflict. Two major issues were addressed: (a) the extent to which psychological traits are viewed as a product …
The role of animacy in children's understanding of ‘move’
Animals are distinctive in that they are the causal agents of their own actions (e.g. a dog moves itself), whereas artifacts generally are not (e.g. a marble doesn't move itself). We examined whether children make use of this conceptual link between animacy and agency when interpreting the verb 'move' in English. Specifically, we hypothesized that the semantic interpretation of 'move' would differ, depending on whether the subject noun refers to …
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