Skip to main content

ETHNOS_APP

Home • Search • Journals • List 0

Are Parents Investing Less in Children? Trends in Mothers' and Fathers' Time with Children

Bibliographic Data

ID2215586
AuthorsL C Sayer (0000-0002-5755-4579, The Ohio State University), Suzanne M Bianchi (University of Maryland, College Park), John P Robinson (0000-0002-6585-0116), J Paul Robinson (0000-0001-8383-3240, University of Maryland, College Park)
Year2004
Volume110
Issue1
Pages1-43
Publication date2004-07-01
Peer ReviewedYes
Open AccessNo
TypeARTICLE
VenueAmerican Journal of Sociology (JOURNAL)
Journal identifiersISSN: 0002-9602 • E-ISSN: 1537-5390
PublisherUniversity of Chicago Press (PUBLISHER • US)
DOI10.1086/386270
OpenAlexW1483795552
LanguageEN
Citations received459
References cited59

In this study, time diary data are used to assess trends in mothers’ and fathers’ child care time from the mid‐1960s to the late 1990s. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the results indicate that both mothers and fathers report spending greater amounts of time in child care activities in the late 1990s than in the “family‐oriented” 1960s. For mothers, there was a 1965–75 decline in routine child care time and then a 1975–98 rebound along with a steady increase in time doing more developmental activities. For 1998 fathers report increased participation in routine child care as well as in more “fun” activities. The ratio of married mothers’ to married fathers’ time in child care declined in all primary child care activities. These results suggest that parents have undergone a behavioral change that has more than countered family change that might otherwise have reduced time with children

Child care · Developmental psychology · Family medicine · Sociology · Time-use survey · Demography · Family Dynamics and Relationships · Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics · Medicine · Psychology · Work-Family Balance Challenges

  • Value Change and the New Wave of Fertility Postponement in Western Europe

    Open Access•Oskar Lindström, Raffaele Guetto et al.•Population and Development Review•2026

  • La jornada continua como un recurso para la maternidad intensiva. Una mirada desde la Comunidad Valenciana

    Open Access•Sandra Obiol-Francé•Revista de Sociología de la…•2021

  • Investment, Saving, and Borrowing for Children

    Open Access•N Bandelj, Angelina Grigoryeva•RSF The Russell Sage Foundation…•2021

  • Implication parentale dans la favorisation de la créativité des enfants Effet du genre et du niveau d’éducation

    Open Access•Marouen Ben Abdallah, Ghazi Chakroun•Revue internationale du CRIRES…•2023

  • Conforming to intensive parenting ideals

    Ciara Smyth, Lyn Craig•Families Relationships and…•2015

  • Gendered perceptions of workaholism and the gender gap in parenting time

    Tom Buchanan, Adian Mcfarlane et al.•Families Relationships and…•2020

  • Couples’ daily childcare schedules

    Ursula Henz•Families Relationships and…•2020

  • Work/life satisfaction policy in Advance universities

    Open Access•Leslie E Tower, Lisa M Dilks•Journal of Diversity in Higher…•2015

  • Australian fathers’ work and family time in comparative and temporal perspective 1

    Lyn Craig, Killian Mullan•Journal of Family Studies•2012

  • Evaluation of Syracuse Healthy Start’s Program for Abnormal Flora Management to Reduce Preterm Birth Among Pregnant Women

    Open Access•Emilia H Koumans, D Lane et al.•Maternal and Child Health Journal•2010

  • Peers, Predators, and Porn

    Open Access•Byrne, Sherri Jean Katz et al.•Journal of Computer-Mediated…•2013

  • Taking Custody of Motherhood

    Jocelyn Elise Crowley•Women's studies quarterly•2009

  • Cultural participation and time restrictions

    Open Access•Gerbert Kraaykamp, Wouter Van Gils et al.•Poetics•2008

  • White hiring agents' organizational practices and out-group hiring

    Open Access•J A Kmec•Social Science Research•2006

  • Combining structure, content and meaning in online social networks

    Open Access•Carlo Lipizzi, Luca Iandoli et al.•Technological Forecasting and…•2016

  • Gendered Living Arrangements Among Children With Disabilities

    Open Access•Philip N Cohen, Miruna Petrescu‐prahova•Journal of Marriage and the Family•2006

  • Family Flexibility in Response to Economic Conditions

    Open Access•Brian Knop, K L Brewster•Journal of Marriage and the Family•2016

  • Parent depressive symptomatology moderates the etiology of externalizing behavior in childhood

    Open Access•David A Clark, Kelly L Klump et al.•Developmental Psychology•2018

  • Early maternal employment and children’s school readiness in contemporary families

    Caitlin Mcpherran Lombardi, R L Coley•Developmental Psychology•2014

  • Time Use Surveys

    Open Access•Alain Chenu, L Lesnard•European Journal of Sociology•2006

  • Shared Family Activities and the Transition From Childhood Into Adolescence

    Open Access•R Crosnoe, Jared D Thorpe et al.•Journal of Research on Adolescence•2008

  • Time Use Research

    Open Access•John P Robinson, Teresa Harms et al.•International Encyclopedia of the…•2015

  • The Family, the Market or the State?

    Open Access•Gustavo De Santis•Family, the Market or the State?•2012

  • Inventing the Working Parent

    Open Access•Sarah E Stoller•Inventing the Working Parent•2023

  • How Employed Mothers in Australia Find Time for Both Market Work and Childcare

    Open Access•Lyn Craig•Journal of Family and Economic…•2007

  • Diverging Destinies Revisited

    Open Access•Mclanahan, Sara Mclanahan et al.•Families in an Era of Increasing…•2015

  • A Review of the Literature on the Social and Economic Determinants of Parental Time

    Open Access•Berenice Monna, A H Gauthier•Journal of Family and Economic…•2008

  • Advancing Research and Measurement on Fathering and Children’s Development

    Open Access•Brenda L Volling, Natasha J Cabrera et al.•Monographs of the Society for…•2019

  • Trends in Women’s and Men’s Time Use, 1965–2012

    Open Access•L C Sayer•Gender and Couple Relationships•2016

  • Time in Parenting Activities in Dual‐Earner Families at the Transition to Parenthood

    Open Access•Letitia E Kotila, Sarah J Schoppe‐sullivan et al.•Family Relations•2013

  • The Suffocation of Marriage

    E J Finkel, Chin Ming Hui et al.•Psychological Inquiry•2014

  • The unequal impact of parenthood in academia

    Open Access•Allison C Morgan, Samuel F Way et al.•Science Advances•2021

  • The Baby Boomers' Intergenerational Relationships

    K L Fingerman, Karl Pillemer et al.•The Gerontologist•2012

  • Children's Parents

    Marc H Bornstein•Handbook of Child Psychology and…•2015

  • The Growth in Shared Custody in the United States

    Open Access•D R Meyer, Maria Cancian et al.•Family Court Review•2017

  • The stalled gender housework revolution in the United States

    Open Access•Patrick Ishizuka•Social Forces•2026

  • Gender and Welfare States

    Open Access•Marie Laperrière, Ann Shola Orloff•Handbook of the Sociology of Gender•2018

  • Parental Involvement and Work Schedules

    J L Hook, Christina Marie Wolfe•European Sociological Review•2013

  • Parental Leisure Time

    Lyn Craig, Killian Mullan•Social Politics International…•2013

  • The Politics of Women's Economic Independence

    E Huber, Joyce Stephens et al.•Social Politics International…•2009

  • The Roles of Gray Divorce and Subsequent Repartnering for Parent–Adult Child Relationships

    Open Access•I F Lin, Susan L Brown et al.•The Journals of Gerontology…•2021

  • Trends in Fathers’ Contribution to Housework and Childcare under Different Welfare Policy Regimes

    Evrim Altintas, Oriel Sullivan•Social Politics International…•2016

  • Is it “Good” to Have a Stay-at-Home Mom? Parental Childcare Time and Work–Family Arrangements in Italy, 1988–2014

    Open Access•Giulia M Dotti Sani•Social Politics International…•2020

  • Parent–Adult Child Relationships and Repartnering After Gray Divorce

    Open Access•L Brown, Susan L Brown et al.•The Journals of Gerontology…•2025

  • Necesidades percibidas en el trabajo doméstico y de cuidados

    Open Access•Luz Martínez Martínez, Alba Catalá-Miñana et al.•Psychosocial Intervention•2015

  • Compressing “The Sandwiched”

    Dominika Jegen, Dominika A Jegen•Health Care For Women International•2008

  • Parental health, adolescents’ mental distress and non-cognitive skills

    Open Access•Apostolos Davillas, Victor Hugo de Oliveira et al.•Economics & Human Biology•2025

  • Father Involvement and Maternal Stress

    Open Access•Dora D’orsi, Manuela Veríssimo et al.•International Journal of…•2023

  • The impact of disability on motherhood decisions

    Patricia Moreno Mencía, David Cantarero-Prieto•Health Care For Women International•2021

  • Parent-Child Time During the Covid-19 Pandemic

    Open Access•Taryn W Morrissey, Katherine Engel•Maternal and Child Health Journal•2023

  • Associations between Gendered Family Structures and Adolescent Stress, Loneliness, and Sadness in South Korea

    Open Access•M J Dufur, Hyeyoung Woo•International Journal of…•2023

  • Parent, partner, co-parent or partnership? The need for clarity as family systems thinking takes hold in the quest to motivate behavioural change

    Open Access•Chris May, Li Kheng Chai et al.•Children•2017

  • Applying the Master Narrative Framework to Gender Identity Development in Emerging Adulthood

    Open Access•Kate C Mclean, Hannah Shucard et al.•Emerging Adulthood•2016

  • The Paternal Component of the “Healthy Migrant” Effect

    Open Access•Ambika Krishnakumar, D Lane et al.•Maternal and Child Health Journal•2010

  • Early Childhood Education and Care and mother’s labor supply

    Open Access•Pablo Brugarolas•Review of Economics of the…•2026

  • Gender and Welfare States

    Open Access•Marie Laperrière, Ann Shola Orloff•The Blackwell Encyclopedia of…•2018

  • Risicogedrag en het wereldwijde web - De invloed van gezin en samenleving op het online risicogedrag van adolescenten vanuit een Europees perspectief

    Natascha Notten•Mens & Maatschappij•2013

  • Mapping Immigrant Children’s Ethnoracialized Identities in Canada

    Open Access•Soudeh Oladi•Canadian Journal of Education /…•2023

  • Examining the family dynamics of the Canadian gender income gap

    Open Access•Tom Buchanan, Adian Mcfarlane et al.•SN Social Sciences•2021

  • Work-family conflict

    Open Access•Mofoluwake P Ajayi, Tomike I Olawande et al.•Cogent Social Sciences•2020

  • Supporting Student Affairs Mothers with Children with Disabilities

    Kellie McKinney•Journal of Student Affairs…•2025

  • Who's there? The mediation of adult early attachment experience and education investment

    Open Access•Jie Li, Xu Liu•Current Psychology•2024

  • The Earned Income Tax Credit and Maternal Time Use

    Jacob Bastian, Lance Lochner•Journal of Labor Economics•2022

  • Access to Head Start and Maternal Labor Supply

    Jocelyn S Wikle, Jocelyn Wikle et al.•Journal of Labor Economics•2023

  • Links Between Work–Family Conflict, Enrichment, and Adolescent Well‐Being

    Open Access•M Matias, Joana Recharte•Family Relations•2021

  • Parenting During Covid ‐19

    Open Access•Margaret L Kerr, Hannah F Rasmussen et al.•Family Relations•2021

  • Children's socioemotional skills and fathers' work satisfaction

    Open Access•Qiujie Gong, Shier Ju et al.•Family Relations•2024

  • Happiness and Psychological Well-Being Among Fathers of Young Children

    Open Access•Buket Şen Montazerirad, Akgün Yeşiltepe•Journal of Family Issues•2026

  • Kids these days and kids those days

    Open Access•Katherine E Frye, Christopher J Anthony et al.•Journal of School Psychology•2024

  • The Familial Context of Children’s Creativity

    Open Access•Dorota Maria Jankowska, Jacek Gralewski•Creativity Studies•2022

  • Marriage, Kids, and the Picket Fence? Household Type and Wealth among U.S. Households, 1989 to 2019

    Open Access•C Percheski, C Gibson-Davis•Sociological Science•2022

  • Beyond W.E.I.R.D. (Western, educated, industrial, rich, democratic)‐centric theories and perspectives

    Open Access•Li Xuan, Yang Hu et al.•Journal of Family Theory & Review•2021

  • Mothers’ and Fathers’ Time Spent with Children in the U.S

    Open Access•Lisa A Gennetian, Christopher Rodrigues•Journal of Economics Race and…•2020

  • Pandemic Pathways

    Open Access•P Gonalons-Pons, Johanna S Quinn•Socius Sociological Research for…•2024

  • Trends in the Parenthood Gap in Health and Well-Being among U.S. Women from 1996 to 2018

    Open Access•K Nomaguchi, M A Milkie•Socius Sociological Research for…•2023

  • Gender and Educational Variation in How Temporal Dimensions of Paid Work Affect Parental Child Care Time

    Open Access•Y Qian, L C Sayer•Socius Sociological Research for…•2022

  • Re-examining How Partner Co-presence and Multitasking Affect Parents’ Enjoyment of Childcare and Housework

    Open Access•Allison Dunatchik, Svetlana Speight•Sociological Science•2020

  • Early Childhood Investments and Women’s Work Outcomes across the Life Course

    Open Access•Vida Maralani, Camille Portier et al.•Sociological Science•2026

  • Non-Parental Family Members as Brokers of Family Social Capital

    Open Access•M Alcaraz, Ashley Larsen Gibby et al.•Social Sciences•2020

  • Child Citizenship Status in Immigrant Families and Differential Parental Time Investments in Siblings

    Open Access•Jocelyn S Wikle, E Ackert•Social Sciences•2022

  • Is Children’s Academic Performance Valuable to Parents? Linking Children’s Effort Vs. Results and Fathers’ Vs. Mothers’ Subjective Well-Being

    Open Access•Y Tong, Jenny Xin Li et al.•Child Indicators Research•2020

  • Marital satisfaction and the impact of children in collectivist cultures

    Lisa M Dillon, Michelle Provenzano Beechler•Journal of Evolutionary Psychology•2010

  • Stalled or Uneven Gender Revolution? A Long‐Term Processual Framework for Understanding Why Change Is Slow

    Open Access•Oriel Sullivan, J Gershuny et al.•Journal of Family Theory & Review•2018

  • The Gender-Equality Paradox

    Open Access•Margaret L Usdansky•Journal of Family Theory & Review•2011

  • Keeping Young Minds Sharp”

    Open Access•Linda Quirke•Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue…•2006

  • Beyond childcare

    Open Access•Dana Wray, Julia Ingenfeld et al.•Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue…•2021

  • Feminism on Family Sociology

    Open Access•Bonnie Fox•Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue…•2015

  • Well‐balanced families

    Open Access•Simon Burnett, Caroline Gatrell et al.•Gender in Management An…•2010

  • The More Things Change, the More They Remain the Same

    Open Access•Beth A Latshaw•Sociology Compass•2011

  • Evaluation of the Building Everyday Life positive parenting programme

    Open Access•Susana Torío López, Susana Torío-López et al.•Journal of Children s Services•2015

  • Educational difference in parents’ childcare time

    Zhong Han, Hongyu Zhao et al.•Asian Population Studies•2023

  • Getting the measurement right! quantifying time poverty and multitasking from childcare among mothers with children across different age groups in rural north India

    Open Access•Laili Irani, Vidya Vemireddy•Asian Population Studies•2020

  • Living in Each Other's Pockets”

    Open Access•Anne Montgomery•City and Community•2006

  • The Transmission of Parenting from Fathers to Sons

    Sandra L Hofferth, Joseph H Pleck et al.•Parenting•2012

  • Maternal employment and children's health in India

    Open Access•Jince Shajan, Bevinje Subbyamoola Sumalatha•Journal of Public Affairs•2020

  • Couple Bargaining or Socio-Economic Status

    Open Access•Pau Baizan, Pau Baizán Muñoz et al.•European Societies•2013

  • Dual-earner parents’ work-family time

    Open Access•Lyn Craig, Adam Powell•Journal of Population Research•2012

  • Fathers and infant health and survival in Ende, a rural district of Eastern Indonesia

    Open Access•Jerico Franciscus Pardosi, Nick Parr et al.•Journal of Population Research•2017

  • Parenting a child with a disability

    Open Access•Carrie L Shandra, Dennis P Hogan et al.•Journal of Population Research•2008

  • Father-friendly legislation and paternal time across Western Europe

    Alison Smith, Alison J Smith et al.•Journal of Comparative Policy…•2007

  • Growing up with a single parent

    Gary Sandefur, Gary Sandefur Sarah McLanahan et al.•Growing up with a single parent•1994

  • The cultural contradictions of motherhood

    Sharon Hays•The cultural contradictions of…•1998

  • Kingdom of children

    Mitchell L Stevens•Kingdom of children•2001

  • The Second Demographic Transition in Western Countries

    Ron Lesthaeghe•Gender and family change in…•1995

  • Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets

    Ronald L Oaxaca, Ronald Oaxaca•International Economic Review•1973

  • Pricing the priceless child

    Viviana A Rotman Zelizer, Viviana A Zelizer•Pricing the priceless child•1981

  • Fatherhood and Social Change

    Ralph Larossa•Family Relations•1988

  • Family Man

    Scott Coltrane•Family man•1996

  • The Time-Poor

    Clair Vickery•The Journal of Human Resources•1977

  • Changing Times

    J Gershuny•Changing times•2000

  • The Uses of Tobit Analysis

    John F Mcdonald, Robert Moffitt et al.•The Review of Economics and…•1980

  • Mandates for Mothers and Fathers

    Open Access•Janet Morgan Riggs•Sex Roles•1997

  • The History of Research on Father Involvement

    Michael E Lamb•Marriage & Family Review•2000

  • Can we make time for children? the economy, work schedules, and child care

    Open Access•Harriet B Presser•Demography•1989

  • Children and the elderly

    Open Access•H Preston, Samuel H Preston•Demography•1984

  • Historical changes in the household division of labor

    Open Access•J Gershuny, John P Robinson•Demography•1988

  • What’s happening to the family? Interactions between demographic and institutional change

    Open Access•Larry L Bumpass•Demography•1990

  • Changes in children’s time with parents

    Open Access•John F Sandberg, John Sandberg et al.•Demography•2001

  • Gender Differences in the Quantity and Quality of Free Time

    Marybeth J Mattingly, Sophie Blanchi et al.•Social Forces•2003

  • Home Investments in Children

    Arleen Leibowitz•Journal of Political Economy•1974

  • Maternal employment and time with children

    Open Access•Suzanne M Bianchi•Demography•2000

  • Does Marriage Matter

    Open Access•L J Waite•Demography•1995

  • Holding hands at midnight

    N Folbre•Feminist Economics•1995

  • The Rational Reconstruction of Society

    James S Coleman•American Sociological Review•1993

  • Changing Values and Falling Birth Rates

    H Preston, Samuel H Preston•Population and Development Review•1986

  • Work-Family Issues of Mothers of Teenage Children

    Open Access•Demie Kurz•Qualitative Sociology•2000

  • Weaving Work and Motherhood

    E Boris, Anita Ilta Garey•Industrial and Labor Relations…•2001

  • Social Class and the Daily Lives of Children

    Open Access•A Lareau•Childhood•2000

  • Responsible Fathering

    William J Doherty, Edward F Kouneski et al.•Journal of Marriage and the Family•1998

  • Persistence and Change in Decisions to Remain Childless

    T B Heaton, Cardell K Jacobson et al.•Journal of Marriage and the Family•1999

  • Fathering over Time

    Joan Aldous, Gail M Mulligan et al.•Journal of Marriage and the Family•1998

  • What Did You Do Today? Children's Use of Time, Family Composition, and the Acquisition of Social Capital

    Suzanne M Bianchi, John P Robinson et al.•Journal of Marriage and the Family•1997

  • Sociodemographic Factors, Functioning Style, Social Support, and Fathers' Involvement with Preschoolers in African-American Families

    Mohammad Ahmeduzzaman, Jaipaul L Roopnarine•Journal of Marriage and the Family•1992

  • Paternal Engagement Activities with Minor Children

    William Marsiglio•Journal of Marriage and the Family•1991

  • Timing of Fatherhood

    T M Cooney, Frank A Pedersen et al.•Journal of Marriage and the Family•1993

  • Change in Men's Housework and Child-Care Time, 1965-1975

    Shelley Coverman, Joseph F Sheley•Journal of Marriage and the Family•1986

  • Predicting the Sharing of Household Labor

    Open Access•Masako Ishii-Kuntz, Scott Coltrane•Sociological Perspectives•1992

  • Household Labor and the Routine Production of Gender

    Scott Coltrane•Social Problems•1989

  • Childfree And Feminine

    Open Access•Rosemary Gillespie•Gender & Society•2003

  • Overworked Individuals or Overworked Families

    Open Access•J A Jacobs, Kathleen Gerson•Work and Occupations•2001

  • Caring for Teenage Children

    Open Access•Demie Kurz•Journal of Family Issues•2002

  • Make Room for Daddy

    Open Access•Anna Dienhart•Journal of Family Issues•2001

  • Four Decades of Trends in Attitudes Toward Family Issues in the United States

    Open Access•Arland Thornton, Linda Young‐demarco•Journal of Marriage and the Family•2001

  • How American Children Spend Their Time

    Open Access•Sandra L Hofferth, John F Sandberg et al.•Journal of Marriage and the Family•2001

  • Deconstructing Family Time

    Open Access•Kerry J Daly, Kerry Daly•Journal of Marriage and the Family•2001

  • Children's Time With Fathers in Intact Families

    Open Access•W J J Yeung, W Jean Yeung et al.•Journal of Marriage and the Family•2001

  • Explaining Husbands' Participation in Domestic Labor

    Open Access•Shelley Coverman•Sociological Quarterly•1985

  • Rethinking Social Reactions to Crime

    Mark Warr, C G Ellison•American Journal of Sociology•2000

  • Mothers' Employment, Parental Involvement, and the Implications for Intermediate Child Outcomes

    Open Access•Cathleen D Zick, W Keith Bryant et al.•Social Science Research•2001

  • A New Look at Parents' Time Spent in Child Care

    Open Access•Cathleen D Zick, W Keith Bryant•Social Science Research•1996

  • Measuring Household Work

    Open Access•Margaret Mooney Marini, Beth Anne Shelton•Social Science Research•1993

Unique citing works459
Citations per year20,86
Citation span2004 - 2026 (23)
Citation velocitycurrent
Highly citedYes
Citation typesNeutral: 439

Tools

Open DOISci-Hub
Ethnos_APP • Open Source Project • MIT License • Frontend v2.0.0 • Privacy and Cookies • API Documentation: api.ethnos.app/docs • API Source Code: GitHub • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17049435 • Frontend Source Code: GitHub • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17050053 • cruz.rio.br • Expectantes Misericordiae