Examining the boundary conditions of tokenism
Within-occupation gender wage gaps and female representation in the Canadian labor market
Bibliographic Data
| ID | 6058554 |
|---|---|
| Authors | Amber L Stephenson (0000-0003-3225-1464, Clarkson University), David B Yerger (0000-0003-0006-0751, Indiana University of Pennsylvania) |
| Year | 2024 |
| Volume | 43 |
| Issue | 4 |
| Pages | 711-727 |
| Publication date | 2024-05-01 |
| Peer Reviewed | Yes |
| Open Access | Yes |
| Type | ARTICLE |
| Venue | Equal Opportunities International (JOURNAL) |
| Journal identifiers | ISSN: 1758-7093 • E-ISSN: 2040-7149 |
| Publisher | Emerald (PUBLISHER) |
| DOI | 10.1108/edi-05-2023-0140 |
| OpenAlex | W4390769892 |
| Language | EN |
| Citations received | 2 |
| References cited | 41 |
Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the boundary conditions of Kanter's (1977) tokenism theory as applied to the gender wage gap. The authors aimed to discover if there was a point where the relationship between the percentage of women in a job category and the gender wage gap changed, and, if so, where the threshold was located and what was the nature of the shift in relationship. Design/methodology/approach The authors used the Andrews’ (1993) threshold effects technique. Using 22 separate years of publicly available Canadian wage data, they examined the relationship between the percentage of females in 40 unique occupational categories and the female-to-male earnings ratio (for a total of 880 observations). Findings The results showed the existence of a threshold point, and that early gains in percent female within an occupation, up to approximately 14% female in the occupation, associate with strong gains in the female-to-male wage ratio. However, beyond that point, further gains in percent female associate with smaller improvements in the female-to-male wage ratio. Practical implications The findings are useful in understanding the dynamics of occupational group gender composition, potential theoretical reasons for the nuances in relationship, as well as opportunities that may facilitate more equitable outcomes. Originality/value The results show that, though improvements were made above and below the threshold point, enhancements in the wage gap are actually larger when there are less women in the job category (e.g. tokens)
Demographic economics · Earnings · Economics · Labour economics · Male female · Occupational segregation · Percentage point · Sociology · Tokenism · Wage · Employment and Welfare Studies · Gender Diversity and Inequality · Labor market dynamics and wage inequality · Mathematics · Psychology
Understanding Tokenism
Tests for Parameter Instability and Structural Change With Unknown Change Point
The Gender Pay Gap
The Gender Wage Gap
Women and Wages Worldwide
Women Directors and Corporate Social Performance
Critical Mass
Gender Diversity in the Boardroom and Firm Performance
Women Directors on Corporate Boards
The Failure of Human Capital Theory to Explain Occupational Sex Segregation
Board Gender Diversity in the STEM&F Sectors
The Gender Wage Gap in the Canadian Provinces, 1997–2014
The U.S. Gender Pay Gap in the 1990S
Gender gaps at the top
Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life
Explaining Occupational Sex Segregation and Wages
Working for the Woman? Female Managers and the Gender Wage Gap
Masculinity at Work
Rethinking Tokenism
The Gender Revolution
When Men are the Minority
Agents of Change or Cogs in the Machine? Reexamining the Influence of Female Managers on the Gender Wage Gap
Gender of the immediate manager and women's wages
| Unique citing works | 2 |
|---|---|
| Citations per year | 2 |
| Citation span | 2025 - 2026 (2) |
| Citation velocity | current |
| Highly cited | No |
| Citation types | Neutral: 2 |