Rethinking AI Anthropomorphism

A Holistic Conceptualization and Scale Across AI Systems and Service Contexts

Bibliographic Data

ID6456383
AuthorsYingwei Xu (Washington State University), Yingwei Wayne Xu, Christina G Chi (University of Johannesburg), G Christina (0000-0002-8265-1768), Dogan Gursoy (0000-0002-3602-9433, University of Johannesburg, corresponding author), Ruiying Cai (0000-0003-4152-2254, Washington State University)
Year2025
Volume85
Pages103189-103189
Publication date2025-12-01
Open AccessYes
TypeARTICLE
VenueTechnology in Society (JOURNAL)
Journal identifiersISSN: 0160-791X • E-ISSN: 1879-3274
PublisherElsevier BV (PUBLISHER)
DOI10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103189
OpenAlexW4417224017
LanguageEN
Citations received2
References cited69

Building on Gestalt theory, this research introduces a holistic framework for defining artificial intelligence (AI) anthropomorphism, which guides the development of a parsimonious Scale of AI Anthropomorphism (SAIA). Through a systematic literature review, seven focus group discussions, and rigorous six-step scale development procedures, the research conceptualizes and validates a multidimensional framework that captures both external and internal human-like traits, including virtues and vices of anthropomorphic AI. Based on 2944 valid responses from five studies, a 40-item, six-dimensional parsimonious SAIA was developed, namely, human-like appearance, cognitive competency, adaptive capacity, social intelligence, morality, and fallibility. The scale demonstrated strong psychometric properties through comprehensive qualitative and quantitative validation. The SAIA serves as a robust tool for assessing the anthropomorphism of both tangible (e.g., robots) and intangible (e.g., chatbots) AI across normal service and service failure contexts. • Introduces a holistic framework for AI anthropomorphism using Gestalt theory. • Develops and validates a six-dimensional Scale of AI Anthropomorphism (SAIA). • Captures both external and internal human-like traits, including virtues and vices. • Demonstrates strong psychometric properties through five studies with 2944 responses. • Provides a generalizable tool for assessing AI anthropomorphism across AI systems and service contexts.

Cognition · Conceptualization · Gestalt psychology · Psychometrics · Qualitative research · Scale (ratio) · Service (business) · AI in Service Interactions · Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education · Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI

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