Russell J Leng
Biographic Data
| ID | 347219 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Russell J Leng |
| GIVEN NAMES | Russell J |
| FAMILY NAME | Leng |
| SIGNATURE | LENG R J |
| AFFILIATIONS | Middlebury College |
| VERIFIED | No |
| TOTAL WORKS | 19 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 431 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 19 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1975 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2004 |
| H-INDEX | 10 |
Escalation: Competing Perspectives and Empirical Evidence
Since the early days of the Cold War, “escalation” has been used as shorthand to refer to rising hostility in interstate disputes. The escalator metaphor reminds us that the phenomenon is a dynamic process as opposed to a static condition, but in some respects the analogy can be misleading. Unlike escalators, militarized disputes do not always start at the same level. Nearly half of them (49 percent) begin with the use of force by one side (Jones…
Culture and Negotiation in Militarized Interstate Disputes
The paper describes the research design and presents some preliminary findings from an extended investigation of the role played by cultural similarities and differences between participants in the evolution of militarized interstate disputes, particularly in the parties' uses of negotiation and negotiation outcomes. The authors employ three typologies of social culture, which are based on the works of Huntington, regional geographers, and the in…
Social and Political Cultural Effects on the Outcomes of Mediation in Militarized Interstate Disputes
The article investigates the relationship between cultural similarities and differences on the part of the representatives of contending states and mediators, and outcomes of mediation efforts in militarized disputes. A distinction is made between social culture, defined primarily in terms of religious identity, and political culture, defined according to the state's political system. Analysis of 752 mediation attempts in militarized disputes occ…
Cumulation in Qip: Twenty-Five Years After Ojai
The article addresses the state of quantitative international politics research, with particular attention to the extent to which peace scientists have been able to obtain cumulative findings with regard to issues of war and peace. When accumulation is viewed from the broader perspective of the emergence of new propositions, methodologies, and the refinement of research strategies, there has been considerable progress, but when accumulation is vi…
Reducing Intergang Violence: Norms from the Interstate System
We maintain that the norms guiding interstate behavior offer a point of departure for the reduction of violence among territorial urban youth gangs. Gangs have been a part of the American urban landscape far too long to assume that they can be eradicated simply by arresting and incarcerating more youths (although this function remains important) without addressing the larger issues that compel individuals to join gangs. Since the relations that e…
No Rest for the War-Weary
International Relations and Politics
Interstate Crisis Behavior, 1816–1980: Realism Versus Reciprocity
Why have some interstate crises escalated to war when other have not? Are there patterns of behavior that war-prone disputes share in common? These are some of the questions considered by Russell Leng as he examines the behavior of nations in forty militarised crises occurring between 1816 and 1980. Leng considers the conditions under which crises are more or less likely to escalate to war or be resolved peacefully and compares the descriptive an…
Reciprocating Influence Strategies in Interstate Crisis Bargaining
The findings of a quantitative analysis of the effectiveness of reciprocating influence strategies in militarized interstate crises (MICs) suggest that the success of reciprocating strategies in MICs is related to (1) withholding cooperative initiatives until after the reciprocating party has demonstrated its resolve, (2) the use of carrot-and-stick influence attempts and responses combining firmness with flexibility, and (3) overcoming ambiguity…
Militarized disputes, incidents, and crises: Identification and classification
The Militarized Interstate Dispute (MID) dataset was generated as part of the broader data‐generation efforts of DDIR. The paper (1) briefly lays out the underlying rationale and procedures used in developing the MID dataset, (2) highlights some conceptual and empirical problems associated with the dataset, (3) discusses the conceptual and empirical distinctions made among incidents, disputes, crises, and wars, and (4) offers suggestions for upda…
Militarized Interstate Crises: The BCOW Typology and Its Applications
Journal Article Militarized Interstate Crises: The BCOW Typology and Its Applications Get access Russell J. Leng, Russell J. Leng Middlebury College Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar J. David Singer J. David Singer University of Michigan Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar International Studies Quarterly, Volume 32, Issue 2, June 1988, Pages 155–173, https://doi.org/10.23…
Crisis Learning Games
Findings from a data-based study of bargaining in recurrent crises between evenly matched states provide the foundation for the construction of four crisis-learning games. Symmetrical and asymmetrical nuclear and nonnuclear sequential three-by-three games assuming complete information and nonmyopic play are presented and analyzed. The empirical study indicated that states that were unsuccessful in one crisis were likely to move to more coercive b…
Reagan and the Russians: Crisis Bargaining Beliefs and the Historical Record
Reagan's view of how to deal with the Soviet Union is compared to the U. S. performance record in three Soviet-American crises: Berlin, 1948-1949, Berlin, 1961, andCuba, 1962. Reagan's public statements indicate that he views the Soviets as incorrigibly hostile, so that conflict bargaining with the Soviets is a zero-sum game requiring a coercive U.S. bargaining strategy. This is characterized as a "bullying" strategy and contrasted with a "recipr…
When Will They Ever Learn: Coercive Bargaining in Recurrent Crises
A set of hypotheses derived from experiential learning and a realpolitik orientation to crisis bargaining are employed to investigate the bargaining behavior of pairs of states embroiled in recurring crises. It is proposed that in crisis bargaining, experiential learning focuses on the outcome of the preceding crisis, and the lessons drawn from that experience are interpreted in accordance with a realpolitik orientation that stresses the importan…
Realpolitik and the Road to War: An Analysis of Attributes and Behavior
The authors address the question of why some militarized interstate disputes evolve into wars, while others do not. They note from previous investigations that the probability of such disputes ending in war is associated with the types of bargaining behavior adopted by disputants. Particularly important are the degrees of escalation and reciprocity that characterize that behavior. This leads them to ask two questions: first, why do statesmen invo…
Comparing Two Studies of Crisis Bargaining: Confrontation, Coercion, and Reciprocity
This article employs events data to compare two studies of crisis bargaining: a qualitative study by Snyder and Diesing based on comparative case studies, and a quantitative study by Leng and Wheeler. Three propositions are tested: (1) both disputants will adopt increasingly coercive bargaining strategies during the confrontation phase of the crisis; (2) the structure of the crisis will determine the strategies of each side once the crisis turnin…
Dangerous Disputes: A Study of Conflict Behavior and War
The authors address the question of why some interstate disputes evolve into wars while others do not. They propose that factors accounting for different outcomes can be divided into two groups: those associated with the bargaining behavior of the disputants and those associated with the attributes of the dispute and disputants. They develop a typology of bargaining behavior and show that eight ideal types of bargaining behavior can be ranked wit…
Influence Strategies, Success, and War
This article studies the effectiveness of influence strategies in serious dyadic disputes. Influence strategies are classified according to four types: bullying, reciprocating, appeasing, and trial-and-error. The study employs events data from twenty serious disputes occurring in the twentieth century. The findings support the central hypothesis that a reciprocating strategy is the most effective means of avoiding a diplomatic defeat without goin…
The future of events data mareiages: A question of compatibility”
What do the growing number of events data research efforts have in common? Is there sufficient compatibility among the extant data collections to combine the data files from different research enterprises? Is the achievement of such compatibility desirable? Four extant events data projects are examined to determine the extent to which there is agreement with regard to the identification and description of international behavior. Following a compa…
When Will They Ever Learn: Coercive Bargaining in Recurrent Crises
A set of hypotheses derived from experiential learning and a realpolitik orientation to crisis bargaining are employed to investigate the bargaining behavior of pairs of states embroiled in recurring crises. It is proposed that in crisis bargaining, experiential learning focuses on the outcome of the preceding crisis, and the lessons drawn from that experience are interpreted in accordance with a realpolitik orientation that stresses the importan…
Influence Strategies, Success, and War
This article studies the effectiveness of influence strategies in serious dyadic disputes. Influence strategies are classified according to four types: bullying, reciprocating, appeasing, and trial-and-error. The study employs events data from twenty serious disputes occurring in the twentieth century. The findings support the central hypothesis that a reciprocating strategy is the most effective means of avoiding a diplomatic defeat without goin…
Realpolitik and the Road to War: An Analysis of Attributes and Behavior
The authors address the question of why some militarized interstate disputes evolve into wars, while others do not. They note from previous investigations that the probability of such disputes ending in war is associated with the types of bargaining behavior adopted by disputants. Particularly important are the degrees of escalation and reciprocity that characterize that behavior. This leads them to ask two questions: first, why do statesmen invo…
Reagan and the Russians: Crisis Bargaining Beliefs and the Historical Record
Reagan's view of how to deal with the Soviet Union is compared to the U. S. performance record in three Soviet-American crises: Berlin, 1948-1949, Berlin, 1961, andCuba, 1962. Reagan's public statements indicate that he views the Soviets as incorrigibly hostile, so that conflict bargaining with the Soviets is a zero-sum game requiring a coercive U.S. bargaining strategy. This is characterized as a "bullying" strategy and contrasted with a "recipr…
Social and Political Cultural Effects on the Outcomes of Mediation in Militarized Interstate Disputes
The article investigates the relationship between cultural similarities and differences on the part of the representatives of contending states and mediators, and outcomes of mediation efforts in militarized disputes. A distinction is made between social culture, defined primarily in terms of religious identity, and political culture, defined according to the state's political system. Analysis of 752 mediation attempts in militarized disputes occ…
Reciprocating Influence Strategies in Interstate Crisis Bargaining
The findings of a quantitative analysis of the effectiveness of reciprocating influence strategies in militarized interstate crises (MICs) suggest that the success of reciprocating strategies in MICs is related to (1) withholding cooperative initiatives until after the reciprocating party has demonstrated its resolve, (2) the use of carrot-and-stick influence attempts and responses combining firmness with flexibility, and (3) overcoming ambiguity…
Militarized Interstate Crises: The BCOW Typology and Its Applications
Journal Article Militarized Interstate Crises: The BCOW Typology and Its Applications Get access Russell J. Leng, Russell J. Leng Middlebury College Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar J. David Singer J. David Singer University of Michigan Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar International Studies Quarterly, Volume 32, Issue 2, June 1988, Pages 155–173, https://doi.org/10.23…
Dangerous Disputes: A Study of Conflict Behavior and War
The authors address the question of why some interstate disputes evolve into wars while others do not. They propose that factors accounting for different outcomes can be divided into two groups: those associated with the bargaining behavior of the disputants and those associated with the attributes of the dispute and disputants. They develop a typology of bargaining behavior and show that eight ideal types of bargaining behavior can be ranked wit…
Comparing Two Studies of Crisis Bargaining: Confrontation, Coercion, and Reciprocity
This article employs events data to compare two studies of crisis bargaining: a qualitative study by Snyder and Diesing based on comparative case studies, and a quantitative study by Leng and Wheeler. Three propositions are tested: (1) both disputants will adopt increasingly coercive bargaining strategies during the confrontation phase of the crisis; (2) the structure of the crisis will determine the strategies of each side once the crisis turnin…
Crisis Learning Games
Findings from a data-based study of bargaining in recurrent crises between evenly matched states provide the foundation for the construction of four crisis-learning games. Symmetrical and asymmetrical nuclear and nonnuclear sequential three-by-three games assuming complete information and nonmyopic play are presented and analyzed. The empirical study indicated that states that were unsuccessful in one crisis were likely to move to more coercive b…
Culture and Negotiation in Militarized Interstate Disputes
The paper describes the research design and presents some preliminary findings from an extended investigation of the role played by cultural similarities and differences between participants in the evolution of militarized interstate disputes, particularly in the parties' uses of negotiation and negotiation outcomes. The authors employ three typologies of social culture, which are based on the works of Huntington, regional geographers, and the in…
Escalation: Competing Perspectives and Empirical Evidence
Since the early days of the Cold War, “escalation” has been used as shorthand to refer to rising hostility in interstate disputes. The escalator metaphor reminds us that the phenomenon is a dynamic process as opposed to a static condition, but in some respects the analogy can be misleading. Unlike escalators, militarized disputes do not always start at the same level. Nearly half of them (49 percent) begin with the use of force by one side (Jones…
Militarized disputes, incidents, and crises: Identification and classification
The Militarized Interstate Dispute (MID) dataset was generated as part of the broader data‐generation efforts of DDIR. The paper (1) briefly lays out the underlying rationale and procedures used in developing the MID dataset, (2) highlights some conceptual and empirical problems associated with the dataset, (3) discusses the conceptual and empirical distinctions made among incidents, disputes, crises, and wars, and (4) offers suggestions for upda…
The future of events data mareiages: A question of compatibility”
What do the growing number of events data research efforts have in common? Is there sufficient compatibility among the extant data collections to combine the data files from different research enterprises? Is the achievement of such compatibility desirable? Four extant events data projects are examined to determine the extent to which there is agreement with regard to the identification and description of international behavior. Following a compa…
Cumulation in Qip: Twenty-Five Years After Ojai
The article addresses the state of quantitative international politics research, with particular attention to the extent to which peace scientists have been able to obtain cumulative findings with regard to issues of war and peace. When accumulation is viewed from the broader perspective of the emergence of new propositions, methodologies, and the refinement of research strategies, there has been considerable progress, but when accumulation is vi…
The future of events data mareiages: A question of compatibility”
What do the growing number of events data research efforts have in common? Is there sufficient compatibility among the extant data collections to combine the data files from different research enterprises? Is the achievement of such compatibility desirable? Four extant events data projects are examined to determine the extent to which there is agreement with regard to the identification and description of international behavior. Following a compa…
Influence Strategies, Success, and War
This article studies the effectiveness of influence strategies in serious dyadic disputes. Influence strategies are classified according to four types: bullying, reciprocating, appeasing, and trial-and-error. The study employs events data from twenty serious disputes occurring in the twentieth century. The findings support the central hypothesis that a reciprocating strategy is the most effective means of avoiding a diplomatic defeat without goin…
Comparing Two Studies of Crisis Bargaining: Confrontation, Coercion, and Reciprocity
This article employs events data to compare two studies of crisis bargaining: a qualitative study by Snyder and Diesing based on comparative case studies, and a quantitative study by Leng and Wheeler. Three propositions are tested: (1) both disputants will adopt increasingly coercive bargaining strategies during the confrontation phase of the crisis; (2) the structure of the crisis will determine the strategies of each side once the crisis turnin…
Dangerous Disputes: A Study of Conflict Behavior and War
The authors address the question of why some interstate disputes evolve into wars while others do not. They propose that factors accounting for different outcomes can be divided into two groups: those associated with the bargaining behavior of the disputants and those associated with the attributes of the dispute and disputants. They develop a typology of bargaining behavior and show that eight ideal types of bargaining behavior can be ranked wit…
When Will They Ever Learn: Coercive Bargaining in Recurrent Crises
A set of hypotheses derived from experiential learning and a realpolitik orientation to crisis bargaining are employed to investigate the bargaining behavior of pairs of states embroiled in recurring crises. It is proposed that in crisis bargaining, experiential learning focuses on the outcome of the preceding crisis, and the lessons drawn from that experience are interpreted in accordance with a realpolitik orientation that stresses the importan…
Realpolitik and the Road to War: An Analysis of Attributes and Behavior
The authors address the question of why some militarized interstate disputes evolve into wars, while others do not. They note from previous investigations that the probability of such disputes ending in war is associated with the types of bargaining behavior adopted by disputants. Particularly important are the degrees of escalation and reciprocity that characterize that behavior. This leads them to ask two questions: first, why do statesmen invo…
Reagan and the Russians: Crisis Bargaining Beliefs and the Historical Record
Reagan's view of how to deal with the Soviet Union is compared to the U. S. performance record in three Soviet-American crises: Berlin, 1948-1949, Berlin, 1961, andCuba, 1962. Reagan's public statements indicate that he views the Soviets as incorrigibly hostile, so that conflict bargaining with the Soviets is a zero-sum game requiring a coercive U.S. bargaining strategy. This is characterized as a "bullying" strategy and contrasted with a "recipr…
Militarized disputes, incidents, and crises: Identification and classification
The Militarized Interstate Dispute (MID) dataset was generated as part of the broader data‐generation efforts of DDIR. The paper (1) briefly lays out the underlying rationale and procedures used in developing the MID dataset, (2) highlights some conceptual and empirical problems associated with the dataset, (3) discusses the conceptual and empirical distinctions made among incidents, disputes, crises, and wars, and (4) offers suggestions for upda…
Militarized Interstate Crises: The BCOW Typology and Its Applications
Journal Article Militarized Interstate Crises: The BCOW Typology and Its Applications Get access Russell J. Leng, Russell J. Leng Middlebury College Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar J. David Singer J. David Singer University of Michigan Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar International Studies Quarterly, Volume 32, Issue 2, June 1988, Pages 155–173, https://doi.org/10.23…
Crisis Learning Games
Findings from a data-based study of bargaining in recurrent crises between evenly matched states provide the foundation for the construction of four crisis-learning games. Symmetrical and asymmetrical nuclear and nonnuclear sequential three-by-three games assuming complete information and nonmyopic play are presented and analyzed. The empirical study indicated that states that were unsuccessful in one crisis were likely to move to more coercive b…
Interstate Crisis Behavior, 1816–1980: Realism Versus Reciprocity
Why have some interstate crises escalated to war when other have not? Are there patterns of behavior that war-prone disputes share in common? These are some of the questions considered by Russell Leng as he examines the behavior of nations in forty militarised crises occurring between 1816 and 1980. Leng considers the conditions under which crises are more or less likely to escalate to war or be resolved peacefully and compares the descriptive an…
Reciprocating Influence Strategies in Interstate Crisis Bargaining
The findings of a quantitative analysis of the effectiveness of reciprocating influence strategies in militarized interstate crises (MICs) suggest that the success of reciprocating strategies in MICs is related to (1) withholding cooperative initiatives until after the reciprocating party has demonstrated its resolve, (2) the use of carrot-and-stick influence attempts and responses combining firmness with flexibility, and (3) overcoming ambiguity…
International Relations and Politics
Cumulation in Qip: Twenty-Five Years After Ojai
The article addresses the state of quantitative international politics research, with particular attention to the extent to which peace scientists have been able to obtain cumulative findings with regard to issues of war and peace. When accumulation is viewed from the broader perspective of the emergence of new propositions, methodologies, and the refinement of research strategies, there has been considerable progress, but when accumulation is vi…
Reducing Intergang Violence: Norms from the Interstate System
We maintain that the norms guiding interstate behavior offer a point of departure for the reduction of violence among territorial urban youth gangs. Gangs have been a part of the American urban landscape far too long to assume that they can be eradicated simply by arresting and incarcerating more youths (although this function remains important) without addressing the larger issues that compel individuals to join gangs. Since the relations that e…
No Rest for the War-Weary
Culture and Negotiation in Militarized Interstate Disputes
The paper describes the research design and presents some preliminary findings from an extended investigation of the role played by cultural similarities and differences between participants in the evolution of militarized interstate disputes, particularly in the parties' uses of negotiation and negotiation outcomes. The authors employ three typologies of social culture, which are based on the works of Huntington, regional geographers, and the in…
Social and Political Cultural Effects on the Outcomes of Mediation in Militarized Interstate Disputes
The article investigates the relationship between cultural similarities and differences on the part of the representatives of contending states and mediators, and outcomes of mediation efforts in militarized disputes. A distinction is made between social culture, defined primarily in terms of religious identity, and political culture, defined according to the state's political system. Analysis of 752 mediation attempts in militarized disputes occ…
Escalation: Competing Perspectives and Empirical Evidence
Since the early days of the Cold War, “escalation” has been used as shorthand to refer to rising hostility in interstate disputes. The escalator metaphor reminds us that the phenomenon is a dynamic process as opposed to a static condition, but in some respects the analogy can be misleading. Unlike escalators, militarized disputes do not always start at the same level. Nearly half of them (49 percent) begin with the use of force by one side (Jones…
Political science (18 works) · Law (12 works) · Law (12 works) · Economics (11 works) · Political Conflict and Governance (11 works) · Psychology (9 works) · Social Psychology (9 works) · Sociology (9 works) · Computer Science (8 works) · Social Psychology (8 works)