Learning From Success to Disrupt Disparities
Exploring Inclusive Disciplinary Districts in the United States
Bibliographic Data
| ID | 9729148 |
|---|---|
| Authors | R O Welsh (0000-0001-6079-4111, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA, corresponding author), Blaise Joseph (New York University, NY, USA), Luis A Rodríguez (0000-0002-4877-2056, New York University, NY, USA) |
| Year | 2026 |
| Volume | 58 |
| Issue | 3 |
| Pages | 404-431 |
| Publication date | 2026-03-01 |
| Peer Reviewed | Yes |
| Open Access | Yes |
| Type | ARTICLE |
| Venue | Education and Urban Society (JOURNAL) |
| Journal identifiers | ISSN: 0013-1245 • E-ISSN: 1552-3535 |
| Publisher | SAGE Publications (PUBLISHER • US) |
| DOI | 10.1177/00131245251372937 |
| OpenAlex | W4415501718 |
| Language | EN |
| References cited | 47 |
Racial inequality in school discipline is an important topic in education. Using nationwide data, this study identifies and examines “Inclusive Disciplinary Districts” (IDDs) in the United States. We use data from the Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) that provides district-level data for the years 2011 to 2012, 2013 to 2014, 2015 to 2016, and 2017 to 2018. The results indicate that suspension rates for Black students, the geographic region, student composition, and economic and social characteristics of IDDs differ from those of High Disciplinary Districts (HDDs) and Median Disciplinary Districts (MDDs). The South has a disproportionately lower share of IDDs and higher share of HDDs. IDDs tend to serve a lower proportion of low-income and Black students than HDDs. Income, racial income inequality, poverty and unemployment rates, crime rates, education levels, the proportion of single-mother households and the proportion of Black residents vary significantly across the neighborhoods of IDDs, MDDs, and HDDs. Differences between IDDs and HDDs are similar even when the sample of districts is limited to predominantly Black districts, predominantly Latinx districts, or predominantly low-income districts. There is notable variation in disciplinary outcomes across regions in the U.S and the findings raise concerns about school discipline policies and practices in the South
Civil rights · Discipline · Educational attainment · Higher education · Inequality · Poverty · Racial bias · Sample (material · Socioeconomic status · Unemployment · Disability Education and Employment · Education Discipline and Inequality · Legal Issues in Education
The School Discipline Dilemma
Are Achievement Gaps Related to Discipline Gaps? Evidence From National Data
Relationship Between School Suspension and Student Outcomes
Improving Schools in Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Areas ? A Review of Research Evidence
Overlooked Exclusionary Discipline
Disproportionality Reduction in Exclusionary School Discipline
Examining student perceptions of school climate, school personnel, and school discipline
Reforming School Discipline
Vicarious severe school discipline predicts racial disparities among non-disciplined Black and White American adolescents
Unpacking the Drivers of Racial Disparities in School Suspension and Expulsion
Homogeneity and Inequality
(Re)Defining Urban Education
Up the down escalator? Examining a decade of school discipline reforms
School Discipline in the Age of Covid-19
But What is Urban Education
Trajectories of externalizing behavior from age 2 to age 9
A Randomized Study of Neighborhood Effects on Low-Income Children's Educational Outcomes
School Discipline and Racial Disparities in Early Adulthood
Troublemakers? The Role of Frequent Teacher Referrers in Expanding Racial Disciplinary Disproportionalities
The Achievement Gap and the Discipline Gap
Improving Student Behavior and School Discipline with Family and Community Involvement
Potential Racial Threat on Student In-School Suspensions in Segregated U.S. Neighborhoods
Exploring Student Achievement Gaps in School Districts Across the United States
Unraveling the Contextual Effects on Student Suspension and Juvenile Arrest
Racial Threat and Punitive School Discipline
Adverse Childhood Experiences, Family Social Capital, and Externalizing Behavior Problems
Racial Threat, Schools, and Exclusionary Discipline
Latino/a Student Threat and School Disciplinary Policies and Practices
Do Differences in School Quality Matter More Than We Thought? New Evidence on Educational Opportunity in the Twenty-first Century
Gentrified Discipline
| Citation velocity | historical |
|---|---|
| Highly cited | No |