David J Harding
Biographic Data
| ID | 3630966 |
|---|---|
| NAME | David J Harding |
| GIVEN NAMES | David J |
| FAMILY NAME | Harding |
| SIGNATURE | HARDING D J |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of Michigan |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-8866-2401 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 40 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 1483 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 40 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2000 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2025 |
| H-INDEX | 14 |
Everybody Has a Past: Stigma, Organizational Practices, and Small Business Evaluation of Applicants with Criminal Records
Stigma is known to operate through formal (e.g. laws, politics, and rules) and informal (e.g. bias, norms, and assumptions) mechanisms. Using data from in-depth interviews with people involved in hiring in food and retail small businesses across the U.S., we examine how the stigma of a criminal record operates in the evaluation of job candidates. We find that the formal and informal stigma mechanisms do not completely account for the way criminal…
Spatial Disadvantage and Racial Disparities in Gun Homicides
Are Neighborhood Effects Explained by Differences in School Quality
It is widely hypothesized that neighborhood effects on academic achievement are explained by differences in the quality of schools attended by resident children. The authors evaluate this hypothesis using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study and a diverse set of measures to capture a school’s effectiveness, resources, and climate. They implement a novel decomposition that separates the overall effect of neighborhood poverty into compo…
Careers in Criminalization: Reentry, Recidivism, and Repeated Incarceration
Criminalization is the process by which people are classified by authorities as criminal and become subject to the control of criminal justice agencies—police, courts, and correctional departments. “Careers in criminalization” refers to sustained criminal justice involvement through repeated incarceration and ongoing police and court contact. Careers in criminalization are produced through a mutually reinforcing process of system-induced harms an…
From Supervision to Opportunity: Reimagining Probation and Parole
Across a variety of measures of safety and rehabilitation, our current systems of parole and probation are failing. Research shows that community supervision fails to reduce crime; traps its subjects in cycles of criminal justice involvement; is excessively punitive; and creates widespread harm to individuals, families, and communities-all while failing to significantly contribute to the social and economic integration of those under its control.…
The Effect of Split Sentences on Employment and Future Criminal Justice Involvement: Evidence from a Natural Experiment
Jails serve as the front doors of carceral systems, with 10 million jail admissions annually. The people admitted to jail often end up with probation sentences. As a result, there are approximately 3.5 million people on probation supervision in the United States. Despite the widespread reach of these institutions, little sociological research exists on the collateral consequences of jail and probation supervision. We focus on these two forms of c…
Race and the Geography of Opportunity in the Post-Prison Labor Market
Research on racial disparities in post-prison employment has primarily focused on the differential effects of stigma on blacks and whites, but we otherwise know little about racial differences. This paper examines racial differences in post-prison employment by industry and geography. We find that the formerly incarcerated are most likely to find work in a small number of 'felon-friendly' industries with formerly incarcerated whites having higher…
After Prison: Navigating Adulthood in the Shadow of the Justice System
The Decline of Intergenerational Income Mobility in Denmark: Returns to Education, Demographic Change, and Labor Market Experience☆
Although there is some evidence of declining intergenerational mobility in wealthy countries, the sources of these changes are not well understood. This paper examines the changes in intergenerational mobility in Denmark, which has one of the highest levels of intergenerational mobility in the world. We show that mobility has been declining for both men and women since the late 1950s across the most recent cohorts who are now old enough to measur…
On the Outside: Prisoner Reentry and Reintegration
America's high incarceration rates are a well-known facet of contemporary political conversations. Mentioned far less often is what happens to the nearly 700,000 former prisoners who rejoin society each year. On the Outside examines the lives of twenty-two people-varied in race and gender but united by their time in the criminal justice system-as they pass out of the prison gates and back into the world. The book takes a clear-eyed look at the ch…
Effects of Incarceration on Labor Market Outcomes Among Young Adults
This chapter examines the effect of imprisonment on labor-market outcomes for young adults. The life-course framework suggests that imprisonment may be particularly consequential for young people making the transition to adulthood. It emphasizes the sequential connections between critical life events and the role of early events in establishing trajectories of advantage or disadvantage over the life course. Drawing on data on young adults sentenc…
Imprisonment and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from a Natural Experiment
Because of racially disproportionate imprisonment rates, the literature on mass incarceration has focused on the labor market consequence of imprisonment and the implications of those effects for racial inequality. Yet, the effects of imprisonment itself, as distinct from conviction, are not well understood. The authors leverage a natural experiment based on the random assignment of judges to felony cases in Michigan to examine the causal effect …
Custodial Parole Sanctions and Earnings after Release from Prison
Although the labor market consequences of incarceration in prison have been central to the literature on mass incarceration, punishment, and inequality, other components of the growing criminal justice system have received less attention from sociologists. In particular, the rise of mass incarceration was accompanied by an even larger increase in community supervision. In this paper, we examine the labor market effects of one frequently experienc…
Trajectories of neighborhood attainment after prison
Culture, Poverty, and Racial Inequality: A New Agenda
Neighborhood Effect Heterogeneity by Family Income and Developmental Period
Effects of disadvantaged neighborhoods on child educational outcomes likely depend on a family's economic resources and the timing of neighborhood exposures during the course of child development. This study investigates how timing of exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods during childhood versus adolescence affects high school graduation and whether these effects vary across families with different income levels. It follows 6,137 children in th…
Urban Poverty
Most research on urban poverty focuses on racial and ethnic minorities living in segregated, high‐poverty neighborhoods in central cities and inner‐ring suburbs. Urban poverty research attempts to understand the roots of dilemmas such as crime and delinquency, unemployment, low levels of education, and single motherhood, as well as the causes and consequences of spatially concentrated poverty and the transmission of poverty over generations. Due …
Incarceration, Prisoner Reentry, and Communities
Since the mid-1970s, the United States has experienced an enormous rise in incarceration and accompanying increases in returning prisoners and in postrelease community correctional supervision. Poor urban communities are disproportionately impacted by these phenomena. This review focuses on two complementary questions regarding incarceration, prisoner reentry, and communities: (a) whether and how mass incarceration has affected the social and eco…
Home Is Hard to Find: Neighborhoods, Institutions, and the Residential Trajectories of Returning Prisoners
Poor urban communities experience high rates of incarceration and prisoner reentry. This article examines where former prisoners live after prison, focusing on returns to pre-prison social environments, residential mobility, and the role of intermediate sanctions-punishments for parole violations that are less severe than returning to prison-on where former prisoners live. Drawing on a unique dataset that uses administrative records to follow a c…
Neighborhood Effects in Temporal Perspective: The Impact of Long-Term Exposure to Concentrated Disadvantage on High School Graduation
Theory suggests that neighborhood effects depend not only on where individuals live today, but also on where they lived in the past. Previous research, however, usually measures neighborhood context only once and does not account for length of residence, thereby understating the detrimental effects of long-term neighborhood disadvantage. This study investigates effects of duration of exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods on high school graduati…
Reavaliando Cultura E Pobreza
Nosso objetivo é fazer um balanço da literatura emergente sobre a relação cultura-pobreza; é identificar questões que permanecem sem resposta; e defender a posição de que o estudo judicioso da cultura, com fundamento teórico e base empírica, pode e deve ser uma componente permanente da agenda da pesquisa sobre a pobreza. Começamos identificando as razões científicas e políticas pelas quais os estudiosos da pobreza deveriam preocupar-se profundame…
Rethinking the Cultural Context of Schooling Decisions in Disadvantaged Neighborhoods: From Deviant Subculture to Cultural Heterogeneity
The literature on neighborhood effects on schooling theorizes that neighborhood cultural context is an important mechanism generating such effects. However, explanations that rely on subcultural theories, such as oppositional culture, have met with considerable criticism on empirical grounds, and no alternative account of the cultural context of disadvantaged neighborhoods has been developed in the education literature. This study develops a new …
Living the Drama: Community, Conflict, and Culture among Inner-City Boys
Reconsidering Culture and Poverty
Culture is back on the poverty research agenda. Over the past decade, sociologists, demographers, and even economists have begun asking questions about the role of culture in many aspects of poverty and even explicitly explaining the behavior of the low-income population in reference to cultural factors. An example is Prudence Carter (2005), who, based on interviews with poor minority students, argues that whether poor children will work hard at …
Chapter Three. The Changing Effect of Family Background on the Incomes of American Adults
Reconsidering Culture and Poverty
Culture is back on the poverty research agenda. Over the past decade, sociologists, demographers, and even economists have begun asking questions about the role of culture in many aspects of poverty and even explicitly explaining the behavior of the low-income population in reference to cultural factors. An example is Prudence Carter (2005), who, based on interviews with poor minority students, argues that whether poor children will work hard at …
Neighborhood Effects in Temporal Perspective: The Impact of Long-Term Exposure to Concentrated Disadvantage on High School Graduation
Theory suggests that neighborhood effects depend not only on where individuals live today, but also on where they lived in the past. Previous research, however, usually measures neighborhood context only once and does not account for length of residence, thereby understating the detrimental effects of long-term neighborhood disadvantage. This study investigates effects of duration of exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods on high school graduati…
Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects: The Effect of Neighborhood Poverty on Dropping Out and Teenage Pregnancy
This article investigates the causal effects of neighborhood on high school dropping out and teenage pregnancy within a counterfactual framework. It shows that when two groups of children, identical at age 10 on observed factors, experience different neighborhoods during adolescence, those in high‐poverty neighborhoods are more likely to drop out of high school and have a teenage pregnancy than those in low‐poverty neighborhoods. Causal inference…
Cultural Context, Sexual Behavior, and Romantic Relationships in Disadvantaged Neighborhoods
When culture is invoked to understand the consequences of growing up in disadvantaged neighborhoods, the isolation of ghetto residents from mainstream institutions and mainstream culture is often emphasized. This article attempts to reorient current theorizing about the cultural context of disadvantaged neighborhoods, particularly when it comes to adolescent decision making and behavior. I argue that rather than being characterized by the dominan…
Violence, Older Peers, and the Socialization of Adolescent Boys in Disadvantaged Neighborhoods
Most theoretical perspectives on neighborhood effects on youth assume that neighborhood context serves as a source of socialization. The exact sources and processes underlying adolescent socialization in disadvantaged neighborhoods, however, are largely unspecified and unelaborated. This article proposes that cross-cohort socialization by older neighborhood peers is one source of socialization for adolescent boys. Data from the National Education…
Matching Estimators of Causal Effects: Prospects and Pitfalls in Theory and Practice
As the counterfactual model of causality has increased in popularity, sociologists have returned to matching as a research methodology. In this article, advances over the past two decades in matching estimators are explained, and the practical limitations of matching techniques are emphasized. The authors introduce matching methods by focusing first on ideal scenarios in which stratification and weighting procedures warrant causal inference. Then…
Incarceration, Prisoner Reentry, and Communities
Since the mid-1970s, the United States has experienced an enormous rise in incarceration and accompanying increases in returning prisoners and in postrelease community correctional supervision. Poor urban communities are disproportionately impacted by these phenomena. This review focuses on two complementary questions regarding incarceration, prisoner reentry, and communities: (a) whether and how mass incarceration has affected the social and eco…
Jean Valjean's Dilemma: The Management of Ex-Convict Identity in the Search for Employment
Drawing on in-depth interviews with male parolees, this study describes how ex-convicts manage their deviant identities in the labor market. Institutional limitations imposed by both the labor market and the criminal justice system as well as subjects' interpretations of stigma play important roles in determining how they choose to present themselves to others. In understanding and constructing their post-imprisonment identities, former prisoners…
Neighborhood Effect Heterogeneity by Family Income and Developmental Period
Effects of disadvantaged neighborhoods on child educational outcomes likely depend on a family's economic resources and the timing of neighborhood exposures during the course of child development. This study investigates how timing of exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods during childhood versus adolescence affects high school graduation and whether these effects vary across families with different income levels. It follows 6,137 children in th…
Home Is Hard to Find: Neighborhoods, Institutions, and the Residential Trajectories of Returning Prisoners
Poor urban communities experience high rates of incarceration and prisoner reentry. This article examines where former prisoners live after prison, focusing on returns to pre-prison social environments, residential mobility, and the role of intermediate sanctions-punishments for parole violations that are less severe than returning to prison-on where former prisoners live. Drawing on a unique dataset that uses administrative records to follow a c…
A Mechanism-Based Approach to the Identification of Age-Period-Cohort Models
This article offers a new approach to the identification of age-period-cohort (APC) models that builds on Pearl's work on nonparametric causal models, in particular his front-door criterion for the identification of causal effects. The goal is to specify the mechanisms through which the age, period, and cohort variables affect the outcome and in doing so identify the model. This approach allows for a broader set of identification strategies than …
Changing Attitudes toward Premarital Sex
Journal Article Changing Attitudes toward Premarital Sex: Cohort, Period, and Aging Effects Get access DAVID J. HARDING, DAVID J. HARDING Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar CHRISTOPHER JENCKS CHRISTOPHER JENCKS Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Public Opinion Quarterly, Volume 67, Issue 2, August 2003, Pages 211–226, https://doi.org/10.1086/374399 Published: 01 August 20…
Rethinking the Cultural Context of Schooling Decisions in Disadvantaged Neighborhoods: From Deviant Subculture to Cultural Heterogeneity
The literature on neighborhood effects on schooling theorizes that neighborhood cultural context is an important mechanism generating such effects. However, explanations that rely on subcultural theories, such as oppositional culture, have met with considerable criticism on empirical grounds, and no alternative account of the cultural context of disadvantaged neighborhoods has been developed in the education literature. This study develops a new …
Imprisonment and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from a Natural Experiment
Because of racially disproportionate imprisonment rates, the literature on mass incarceration has focused on the labor market consequence of imprisonment and the implications of those effects for racial inequality. Yet, the effects of imprisonment itself, as distinct from conviction, are not well understood. The authors leverage a natural experiment based on the random assignment of judges to felony cases in Michigan to examine the causal effect …
Studying Rare Events Through Qualitative Case Studies: Lessons from a Study of Rampage School Shootings
This article considers five methodological challenges in studying rare events such as school shootings. Drawing on the literature on causal analysis in macro-historical and other small-N research, it outlines strategies for studying school shootings using qualitative case studies and illustrates these strategies using data from case studies of two rampage school shootings: Heath High School in West Paducah, Kentucky, and Westside Middle School ou…
Race and the Geography of Opportunity in the Post-Prison Labor Market
Research on racial disparities in post-prison employment has primarily focused on the differential effects of stigma on blacks and whites, but we otherwise know little about racial differences. This paper examines racial differences in post-prison employment by industry and geography. We find that the formerly incarcerated are most likely to find work in a small number of 'felon-friendly' industries with formerly incarcerated whites having higher…
School Shootings as Organizational Deviance
This article argues that rampage school shootings in American public schools can be understood as instances of organizational deviance, which occurs when events created by or in organizations do not conform to an organization's goals or expectations and produce unanticipated and harmful outcomes. Drawing on data from qualitative case studies of two schools that experienced shootings, the authors show how the organizational structure, environment,…
Are Neighborhood Effects Explained by Differences in School Quality
It is widely hypothesized that neighborhood effects on academic achievement are explained by differences in the quality of schools attended by resident children. The authors evaluate this hypothesis using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study and a diverse set of measures to capture a school’s effectiveness, resources, and climate. They implement a novel decomposition that separates the overall effect of neighborhood poverty into compo…
Trajectories of neighborhood attainment after prison
Reavaliando Cultura E Pobreza
Nosso objetivo é fazer um balanço da literatura emergente sobre a relação cultura-pobreza; é identificar questões que permanecem sem resposta; e defender a posição de que o estudo judicioso da cultura, com fundamento teórico e base empírica, pode e deve ser uma componente permanente da agenda da pesquisa sobre a pobreza. Começamos identificando as razões científicas e políticas pelas quais os estudiosos da pobreza deveriam preocupar-se profundame…
Careers in Criminalization: Reentry, Recidivism, and Repeated Incarceration
Criminalization is the process by which people are classified by authorities as criminal and become subject to the control of criminal justice agencies—police, courts, and correctional departments. “Careers in criminalization” refers to sustained criminal justice involvement through repeated incarceration and ongoing police and court contact. Careers in criminalization are produced through a mutually reinforcing process of system-induced harms an…
From Supervision to Opportunity: Reimagining Probation and Parole
Across a variety of measures of safety and rehabilitation, our current systems of parole and probation are failing. Research shows that community supervision fails to reduce crime; traps its subjects in cycles of criminal justice involvement; is excessively punitive; and creates widespread harm to individuals, families, and communities-all while failing to significantly contribute to the social and economic integration of those under its control.…
Anthony F. C. Wallace: Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans
Charles B. Dew's Apostles of Disunion - Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War
Lawrence S. Kaplan's 'Thomas Jefferson - Westward the Course of Empire
Peter S. Onuf's 'Jefferson's Empire: The Language of American Nationhood
Studying Rare Events Through Qualitative Case Studies: Lessons from a Study of Rampage School Shootings
This article considers five methodological challenges in studying rare events such as school shootings. Drawing on the literature on causal analysis in macro-historical and other small-N research, it outlines strategies for studying school shootings using qualitative case studies and illustrates these strategies using data from case studies of two rampage school shootings: Heath High School in West Paducah, Kentucky, and Westside Middle School ou…
Changing Attitudes toward Premarital Sex
Journal Article Changing Attitudes toward Premarital Sex: Cohort, Period, and Aging Effects Get access DAVID J. HARDING, DAVID J. HARDING Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar CHRISTOPHER JENCKS CHRISTOPHER JENCKS Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Public Opinion Quarterly, Volume 67, Issue 2, August 2003, Pages 211–226, https://doi.org/10.1086/374399 Published: 01 August 20…
Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects: The Effect of Neighborhood Poverty on Dropping Out and Teenage Pregnancy
This article investigates the causal effects of neighborhood on high school dropping out and teenage pregnancy within a counterfactual framework. It shows that when two groups of children, identical at age 10 on observed factors, experience different neighborhoods during adolescence, those in high‐poverty neighborhoods are more likely to drop out of high school and have a teenage pregnancy than those in low‐poverty neighborhoods. Causal inference…
Jean Valjean's Dilemma: The Management of Ex-Convict Identity in the Search for Employment
Drawing on in-depth interviews with male parolees, this study describes how ex-convicts manage their deviant identities in the labor market. Institutional limitations imposed by both the labor market and the criminal justice system as well as subjects' interpretations of stigma play important roles in determining how they choose to present themselves to others. In understanding and constructing their post-imprisonment identities, former prisoners…
School Shootings as Organizational Deviance
This article argues that rampage school shootings in American public schools can be understood as instances of organizational deviance, which occurs when events created by or in organizations do not conform to an organization's goals or expectations and produce unanticipated and harmful outcomes. Drawing on data from qualitative case studies of two schools that experienced shootings, the authors show how the organizational structure, environment,…
Matching Estimators of Causal Effects: Prospects and Pitfalls in Theory and Practice
As the counterfactual model of causality has increased in popularity, sociologists have returned to matching as a research methodology. In this article, advances over the past two decades in matching estimators are explained, and the practical limitations of matching techniques are emphasized. The authors introduce matching methods by focusing first on ideal scenarios in which stratification and weighting procedures warrant causal inference. Then…
Urban Poverty
While a technical definition of the urban poor includes those individuals in families with incomes below the federal poverty line who live in metropolitan areas, most research on urban poverty focuses on racial and ethnic minorities living in segregated, high‐poverty neighborhoods in central cities. The study of urban poverty lies at the intersection of several sociological fields, including race and ethnicity, immigration, stratification, and ur…
Cultural Context, Sexual Behavior, and Romantic Relationships in Disadvantaged Neighborhoods
When culture is invoked to understand the consequences of growing up in disadvantaged neighborhoods, the isolation of ghetto residents from mainstream institutions and mainstream culture is often emphasized. This article attempts to reorient current theorizing about the cultural context of disadvantaged neighborhoods, particularly when it comes to adolescent decision making and behavior. I argue that rather than being characterized by the dominan…
A Mechanism-Based Approach to the Identification of Age-Period-Cohort Models
This article offers a new approach to the identification of age-period-cohort (APC) models that builds on Pearl's work on nonparametric causal models, in particular his front-door criterion for the identification of causal effects. The goal is to specify the mechanisms through which the age, period, and cohort variables affect the outcome and in doing so identify the model. This approach allows for a broader set of identification strategies than …
Chapter Three. The Changing Effect of Family Background on the Incomes of American Adults
Recent advances in age-period-cohort analysis. A commentary on Dregan and Armstrong, and on Reither, Hauser and Yang
Violence, Older Peers, and the Socialization of Adolescent Boys in Disadvantaged Neighborhoods
Most theoretical perspectives on neighborhood effects on youth assume that neighborhood context serves as a source of socialization. The exact sources and processes underlying adolescent socialization in disadvantaged neighborhoods, however, are largely unspecified and unelaborated. This article proposes that cross-cohort socialization by older neighborhood peers is one source of socialization for adolescent boys. Data from the National Education…
Living the Drama: Community, Conflict, and Culture among Inner-City Boys
Reconsidering Culture and Poverty
Culture is back on the poverty research agenda. Over the past decade, sociologists, demographers, and even economists have begun asking questions about the role of culture in many aspects of poverty and even explicitly explaining the behavior of the low-income population in reference to cultural factors. An example is Prudence Carter (2005), who, based on interviews with poor minority students, argues that whether poor children will work hard at …
Neighborhood Effects in Temporal Perspective: The Impact of Long-Term Exposure to Concentrated Disadvantage on High School Graduation
Theory suggests that neighborhood effects depend not only on where individuals live today, but also on where they lived in the past. Previous research, however, usually measures neighborhood context only once and does not account for length of residence, thereby understating the detrimental effects of long-term neighborhood disadvantage. This study investigates effects of duration of exposure to disadvantaged neighborhoods on high school graduati…
Reavaliando Cultura E Pobreza
Nosso objetivo é fazer um balanço da literatura emergente sobre a relação cultura-pobreza; é identificar questões que permanecem sem resposta; e defender a posição de que o estudo judicioso da cultura, com fundamento teórico e base empírica, pode e deve ser uma componente permanente da agenda da pesquisa sobre a pobreza. Começamos identificando as razões científicas e políticas pelas quais os estudiosos da pobreza deveriam preocupar-se profundame…
Rethinking the Cultural Context of Schooling Decisions in Disadvantaged Neighborhoods: From Deviant Subculture to Cultural Heterogeneity
The literature on neighborhood effects on schooling theorizes that neighborhood cultural context is an important mechanism generating such effects. However, explanations that rely on subcultural theories, such as oppositional culture, have met with considerable criticism on empirical grounds, and no alternative account of the cultural context of disadvantaged neighborhoods has been developed in the education literature. This study develops a new …
Home Is Hard to Find: Neighborhoods, Institutions, and the Residential Trajectories of Returning Prisoners
Poor urban communities experience high rates of incarceration and prisoner reentry. This article examines where former prisoners live after prison, focusing on returns to pre-prison social environments, residential mobility, and the role of intermediate sanctions-punishments for parole violations that are less severe than returning to prison-on where former prisoners live. Drawing on a unique dataset that uses administrative records to follow a c…
Incarceration, Prisoner Reentry, and Communities
Since the mid-1970s, the United States has experienced an enormous rise in incarceration and accompanying increases in returning prisoners and in postrelease community correctional supervision. Poor urban communities are disproportionately impacted by these phenomena. This review focuses on two complementary questions regarding incarceration, prisoner reentry, and communities: (a) whether and how mass incarceration has affected the social and eco…
Urban Poverty
Most research on urban poverty focuses on racial and ethnic minorities living in segregated, high‐poverty neighborhoods in central cities and inner‐ring suburbs. Urban poverty research attempts to understand the roots of dilemmas such as crime and delinquency, unemployment, low levels of education, and single motherhood, as well as the causes and consequences of spatially concentrated poverty and the transmission of poverty over generations. Due …
Culture, Poverty, and Racial Inequality: A New Agenda
Psychology (24 works) · Sociology (23 works) · Economics (20 works) · Political science (20 works) · Criminology (18 works) · Crime Patterns and Interventions (14 works) · Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis (14 works) · Demographic economics (12 works) · Homelessness and Social Issues (12 works) · Urban, Neighborhood, and Segregation Studies (12 works)