Skip to main content

ETHNOS_APP

Home • Search • Journals • List 0

Rotten Apples

An Investigation of the Prevalence and Predictors of Teacher Cheating

Bibliographic Data

ID23360274
AuthorsBrian Jacob (0009-0003-3794-9850, Harvard University), B A Jacob, Steven D Levitt (American Bar Foundation)
Year2003
Volume118
Issue3
Pages843-877
Publication date2003-08-01
Peer ReviewedYes
Open AccessNo
TypeARTICLE
VenueThe Quarterly Journal of Economics (JOURNAL)
Journal identifiersISSN: 0033-5533 • E-ISSN: 1531-4650
PublisherOxford University Press (OUP) (PUBLISHER)
DOI10.1162/00335530360698441
OpenAlexW3123468586
LanguageEN
Citations received163
References cited15

We develop an algorithm for detecting teacher cheating that combines information on unexpected test score fluctuations and suspicious patterns of answers for students in a classroom. Using data from the Chicago public schools, we estimate that serious cases of teacher or administrator cheating on standardized tests occur in a minimum of 4–5 percent of elementary school classrooms annually. The observed frequency of cheating appears to respond strongly to relatively minor changes in incentives. Our results highlight the fact that high-powered incentive systems, especially those with bright line rules, may induce unexpected behavioral distortions such as cheating. Statistical analysis, however, may provide a means of detecting illicit acts, despite the best attempts of perpetrators to keep them clandestine.

Art · Art history · Cheating · Government (linguistics) · Library science · Media studies · Sociology · Accounting Education and Careers · Auditing, Earnings Management, Governance · Computer Science · Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies · Philosophy · Psychology · Social Psychology

  • The Long-Term Impacts of Teachers

    Raj Chetty, John Friedman et al.•National Bureau of Economic…•2011

  • Accountability, Inequality, and Achievement

    Open Access•Jennifer L Jennings, Douglas L Lauen•RSF The Russell Sage Foundation…•2016

  • Social Reporting in Italian Public Schools in Theory and Practice

    Open Access•Domenico Raucci, Stefano Agostinone et al.•Review of European Studies•2016

  • The Politics Measurement Makes

    Open Access•Donald P Moynihan•The Forum•2010

  • How Vouchers Could Change the Market for Education

    Open Access•Derek Neal•The Journal of Economic…•2002

  • The Promise and Pitfalls of Using Imprecise School Accountability Measures

    Open Access•Thomas J Kane, Douglas O Staiger•The Journal of Economic…•2002

  • Beyond Incentives

    Marigee Bacolod, John Dinardo et al.•Journal of Business and Economic…•2012

  • Incentives to teach badly

    Open Access•Seema Jayachandran•Journal of Development Economics•2014

  • Credentials Versus Performance

    Michael Podgursky, Matthew G Springer•Peabody Journal of Education•2007

  • ‘Effortless Perfection

    Open Access•Dalia Ghanem, Junjie Zhang•Journal of Environmental…•2014

  • (Un)doing Spatially Fixed Inequality

    Open Access•Melinda Lemke•The Urban Review•2020

  • Fifty Ways to Leave a Child Behind

    Open Access•Elsa Davidson, Elizabeth Davidson et al.•Educational Researcher•2015

  • Evaluation and Accountability in Large-Scale Educational System in Chile and Its Effects on Student’s Performance in Urban Schools

    Open Access•Maria Luísa Quaresma, Juan Pablo Valenzuela•Second International Handbook of…•2017

  • Subtle Webs

    Jose Eos Trinidad•Subtle Webs•2025

  • The Politics of Evidence (Open Access)

    Open Access•Justin Parkhurst•The Politics of Evidence (Open…•2016

  • Estimating the Value of Political Connections

    Raymond Fisman•American Economic Review•2001

  • What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City

    Open Access•Thomas J Kane, Jonah E Rockoff et al.•Economics of Education Review•2008

  • School Accountability

    David Figlio, Susanna Loeb•Handbook of the Economics of…•2011

  • Teachers and Student Achievement in the Chicago Public High Schools

    Daniel Aaronson, Lisa Barrow et al.•Journal of Labor Economics•2007

  • Can Principals Identify Effective Teachers? Evidence on Subjective Performance Evaluation in Education

    Brian A Jacob, Brian Jacob et al.•Journal of Labor Economics•2008

  • Injecting Charter School Best Practices into Traditional Public Schools

    Roland G Fryer•The Quarterly Journal of Economics•2014

  • Better Schools, Less Crime?

    David Deming, David J Deming•The Quarterly Journal of Economics•2011

  • Studying Discretion in the Processes that Generate Criminal Justice Sanctions

    Shawn D Bushway, Brian Forst•Justice Quarterly•2013

  • Quality Disclosure and Certification

    David Dranove, Ginger Zhe Jin•Journal of Economic Literature•2010

  • Incentives Work

    Esther Duflo, Rema Hanna et al.•American Economic Review•2012

  • Measuring the Impacts of Teachers II

    Raj Chetty, John N Friedman et al.•American Economic Review•2014

  • Effects and side effects of inspections and accountability in education

    Inge F de Wolf, F J G Janssens•Oxford Review of Education•2007

  • Are High-Quality Schools Enough to Increase Achievement Among the Poor? Evidence from the Harlem Children's Zone

    Will Dobbie, Roland G Fryer•American Economic Journal Applied…•2011

  • Do gender stereotypes reduce girls' or boys' human capital outcomes? Evidence from a natural experiment

    Open Access•Victor Lavy•Journal of Public Economics•2008

  • Ethically adrift

    Open Access•Celia Moore, Francesca Gino•Research in Organizational Behavior•2013

  • Accountability, incentives and behavior

    Open Access•Brian A Jacob, Brian Jacob•Journal of Public Economics•2005

  • Rethinking the ethics of incentives

    Ruth W Grant•Journal of Economic Methodology•2015

  • Improving Administrative Data at Scale

    Open Access•Abhijeet Singh•The Economic Journal•2024

  • A learning approach to the governance of professionals. Field experimental evidence

    Open Access•Simon Calmar Andersen, Thorbjørn Sejr Guul•Journal of Public Administration…•2025

  • Making Sense of Performance Regimes

    Open Access•Mads Leth Jakobsen, Martin Baekgaard et al.•Perspectives on Public Management…•2017

  • Understanding Heterogeneous Effects of Performance Management

    Philip Gigliotti•Perspectives on Public Management…•2020

  • Do Pay-for-Grades Programs Encourage Student Academic Cheating? Evidence from a Randomized Experiment

    Open Access•Tao Li, Yisu Zhou•Frontiers of Education in China•2019

  • Online training and financial incentives for teachers

    Open Access•Kumar Biswas, Pierre De Galbert et al.•Journal of Economic Behavior &…•2024

  • ‘Profiting from at least one side’

    Chengwei Wang, Liang Ma•Public Management Review•2025

  • Understanding the Stakes

    Open Access•Antonina Levatino, Lluís Parcerisa et al.•Educational Policy•2024

  • Policy Narratives of Accountability and Social-Emotional Learning

    Open Access•Taylor N Allbright, Julie A Marsh•Educational Policy•2022

  • School Performance, Score Inflation, and Neighborhood Development

    Erich Battistin, Lorenzo Neri•Journal of Labor Economics•2024

  • ‘Try walking in my shoes’

    Ilana Finefter-Rosenbluh•Cambridge Journal of Education•2020

  • Beyond the threshold

    Open Access•Stephen Burge, Dave Thomson•Economics of Education Review•2023

  • Central exams and adult skills

    Open Access•Lisa Leschnig, Guido Schwerdt et al.•Economics of Education Review•2022

  • What Explains Vietnam's Exceptional Performance in Education Relative to Other Countries? Analysis of the 2012, 2015, and 2018 Pisa Data

    Open Access•Hai-Anh Dang, Paul Glewwe et al.•Economics of Education Review•2023

  • Are federal student loan accountability regulations effective

    Open Access•Christopher V Lau•Economics of Education Review•2020

  • Attendance manipulation and efficiency in Chile’s school voucher system

    Open Access•Eduardo Fajnzylber, Bernardo Lara•Economics of Education Review•2023

  • Unintended consequences of school accountability reforms

    Open Access•Michael Coelli, Gigi Foster•Economics of Education Review•2024

  • The fear of big brother

    Open Access•Rianne Conijn, Ad Kleingeld et al.•Journal of Computer Assisted…•2022

  • Why biased agencies could be the best monitors

    Open Access•Kasim Music, Christian Salzmann et al.•European Journal of Political…•2020

  • Principals or Agents? How State Education Agencies Build Trust to Balance Support and Accountability in Turnaround Policy Implementation

    Open Access•Chris Torres•Educational Administration…•2024

  • Beyond the test scores

    Open Access•Yuan Cui, Kit‐Tai Hau et al.•Studies In Educational Evaluation•2026

  • School Segregation in the Era of Accountability

    Open Access•Tomeka Davis, Rachana Bhatt et al.•Social Currents•2015

  • Making sense of testing

    Open Access•Lluís Parcerisa, Marcel Pagès•Education Inquiry•2025

  • The power of numbers

    Y Feniger, Mirit Israeli et al.•Globalisation Societies and…•2015

  • Analyzing the Assumptions of a Policy Program

    Open Access•F J G Janssens, Inge F de Wolf•American Journal of Evaluation•2009

  • Performance measurement as policy rhetoric

    Joanna Woronkowicz, Thomas Rabovsky et al.•International Journal of Cultural…•2017

  • The effect of high-stakes testing on suicidal ideation of teenagers with reference-dependent preferences

    Open Access•Liang Choon Wang•Journal of Population Economics•2015

  • Accountability-driven school reform

    Open Access•Gary T Henry, Shelby M Mcneill et al.•Early Childhood Research Quarterly•2022

  • Reckoning with Asian America and the New Culture War on Affirmative Action

    Open Access•Jennifer Lee•Sociological Forum•2021

  • The Legacy of Robert K. Merton

    Open Access•Jennifer Lee•Sociological Forum•2021

  • Information shocks and parental response in education. A case study of an open government initiative

    Open Access•Silvia Palmaccio, Fritz Schiltz et al.•Government Information Quarterly•2022

  • How context shapes the relationship between school autonomy and test-scores. An explanatory analysis using Pisa 2015

    Open Access•Christian Buerger, Jane Arnold Lincove et al.•International Journal of…•2023

  • Where you place the stakes matter

    Open Access•W C Smith, Huan Jiang et al.•Comparative Education•2025

  • The effects of private schooling on pupil achievement

    Open Access•M Danish Shakeel, Angela K Dills•Comparative Education•2023

  • The Limits of Meritocracy

    Open Access•Juan Carlos Suárez Serrato, Xiaoyu Wang et al.•Journal of Development Economics•2016

  • Using technology to prevent fraud in high stakes national school examinations

    Open Access•Emilie Berkhout, Manoj Pradhan et al.•Journal of Development Economics•2024

  • Grain inflation

    Open Access•Leigh Linden, Leigh L Linden et al.•Journal of Development Economics•2011

  • Heterogenous teacher effects of two incentive schemes

    Open Access•FELIPE BARRERA‐OSORIO, Jacobus Cilliers et al.•Journal of Development Economics•2022

  • Distorted quality signals in school markets

    Open Access•José Ignacio Cuesta, Felipe González et al.•Journal of Development Economics•2020

  • Improving learning outcomes through information provision

    Open Access•Farzana Afridi, Bidisha Barooah et al.•Journal of Development Economics•2018

  • A strategic response to class size reduction

    Open Access•David Sims•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2008

  • Performance Standards and Employee Effort

    Open Access•Seth Gershenson•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2016

  • False or fitting recognition? The use of high performance bonuses in motivating organizational achievements

    Open Access•Carolyn J Heinrich•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2007

  • Accountability, Test Prep Incentives, and the Design of Math and English Exams

    Open Access•Evan Riehl, Meredith Welch•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2022

  • Measuring returns to experience using supervisor ratings of observed performance

    Open Access•Courtney Bell, Jessalynn James et al.•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2024

  • The impact of no Child Left Behind on student achievement

    Open Access•Thomas S Dee, Brian Jacob•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2011

  • Incentives and their dynamics in public sector performance management systems

    Open Access•Carolyn J Heinrich, Gerald Marschke•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2009

  • The Changing Federal Role in School Accountability

    Open Access•Brian Jacob•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2017

  • Loopholes and the Incidence of Public Services

    Open Access•Thomas Goldring, Brian Jacob et al.•Journal of Policy Analysis and…•2025

  • Peers that count

    Open Access•Tamás Keller, Károly Takács•Research in Social Stratification…•2019

  • Evidence-Based Policy and Performance Management

    Open Access•Carolyn J Heinrich•The American Review of Public…•2007

  • Do Public Employees “Game” Performance Budgeting Systems? Evidence From the Program Assessment Rating Tool in Korea

    Open Access•Hosung Sohn, Kwang Bin Bae•The American Review of Public…•2017

  • School accountability and teachers’ grading in a low-stakes system

    Open Access•Francesco Balzaretti, Moris Triventi•Studies In Educational Evaluation•2025

  • Do Natural Disasters Open a Window of Opportunity for Corruption

    Q K Nguyen, Quang Nguyen•The Journal of Development Studies•2017

  • Using Cumulative Sum Statistics to Detect Inconsistencies in Unproctored Internet Testing

    Open Access•Jorge Tendeiro, Jorge N Tendeiro et al.•Educational and Psychological…•2013

  • Performance measurability, local government’s incentives, and regional air pollution reduction

    Open Access•Jianfu Shen, Daoju Peng et al.•World Development•2025

  • Meaning-Making, Negotiation, and Change in School Accountability, Or What Sociology Can Offer Policy Studies

    Open Access•Jose Eos Trinidad•Sociological Inquiry•2023

  • An Organizational Sociology of Education

    Open Access•Jose Eos Trinidad•Sociological Inquiry•2024

  • Promotional Reviews

    Dina Mayzlin, Yaniv Dover et al.•American Economic Review•2014

  • A General Test for Distortions in Performance Measures

    Pascal Courty, Gerald Marschke•The Review of Economics and…•2008

  • School Accountability, Postsecondary Attainment, and Earnings

    David Deming, David J Deming et al.•The Review of Economics and…•2016

  • Left Behind by Design

    Derek Neal, Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach•The Review of Economics and…•2010

  • Does Evaluation Change Teacher Effort and Performance? Quasi-experimental Evidence from a Policy of Retesting Students

    Esteban Aucejo, Teresa Romano et al.•The Review of Economics and…•2022

  • Incentive Strength and Teacher Productivity

    Scott A Imberman, Scott Imberman et al.•The Review of Economics and…•2015

  • Gentrification and Failing Schools

    Stephen B Billings, E Brunner et al.•The Review of Economics and…•2018

  • The Cost of Grade Retention

    Marco Manacorda•The Review of Economics and…•2012

  • Does Voting Technology Affect Election Outcomes? Touch-screen Voting and the 2004 Presidential Election

    David Card, Enrico Moretti•The Review of Economics and…•2007

  • Biometric Monitoring, Service Delivery, and Misreporting

    Thomas Bossuroy, Clara Delavallade et al.•The Review of Economics and…•2025

  • Multitask Principal–Agent Analyses

    Bengt Holmström, Paul Milgrom•The Journal of Law Economics and…•1991

  • Does External Accountability Affect Student Outcomes? A Cross-State Analysis

    Open Access•Martin Carnoy, Susanna Loeb•Educational Evaluation and Policy…•2002

  • Estimating the Value of Political Connections

    Raymond Fisman•American Economic Review•2001

Unique citing works163
Citations per year6,52
Citation span2001 - 2026 (26)
Citation velocitycurrent
Highly citedYes
Citation typesNeutral: 151

Tools

Open DOISci-Hub
Ethnos_APP • Open Source Project • MIT License • Frontend v2.0.0 • Privacy and Cookies • API Documentation: api.ethnos.app/docs • API Source Code: GitHub • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17049435 • Frontend Source Code: GitHub • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17050053 • cruz.rio.br • Expectantes Misericordiae