Discrimination and Health Inequities
Bibliographic Data
| ID | 8065802 |
|---|---|
| Authors | Nancy Krieger (0000-0002-4815-5947, corresponding author) |
| Year | 2014 |
| Volume | 44 |
| Issue | 4 |
| Pages | 643-710 |
| Publication date | 2014-10-01 |
| Peer Reviewed | Yes |
| Open Access | Yes |
| Type | ARTICLE |
| Venue | International Journal of Health Services (JOURNAL) |
| Journal identifiers | ISSN: 0020-7314 • E-ISSN: 1541-4469 |
| Publisher | SAGE Publishing (PUBLISHER • US) |
| DOI | 10.2190/hs.44.4.b |
| PMID | 25626224 |
| OpenAlex | W2109235191 |
| Language | EN |
| Citations received | 363 |
| References cited | 184 |
In 1999, only 20 studies in the public health literature employed instruments to measure self-reported experiences of discrimination. Fifteen years later, the number of empirical investigations on discrimination and health easily exceeds 500, with these studies increasingly global in scope and focused on major types of discrimination variously involving race/ethnicity, indigenous status, immigrant status, gender, sexuality, disability, and age, separately and in combination. And yet, as I also document, even as the number of investigations has dramatically expanded, the scope remains narrow: studies remain focused primarily on interpersonal discrimination, and scant research investigates the health impacts of structural discrimination, a gap consonant with the limited epidemiologic research on political systems and population health. Accordingly, to help advance the state of the field, this updated review article: (a) briefly reviews definitions of discrimination, illustrated with examples from the United States; (b) discusses theoretical insights useful for conceptualizing how discrimination can become embodied and produce health inequities, including via distortion of scientific knowledge; (c) concisely summarizes extant evidence--both robust and inconsistent--linking discrimination and health; and (d) addresses several key methodological controversies and challenges, including the need for careful attention to domains, pathways, level, and spatiotemporal scale, in historical context
Context (archaeology · Environmental health · Geography · Health care · Health equity · Political science · Population · Public health · Racism · Scope (computer science · Social determinants of health · Sociology · Food Security and Health in Diverse Populations · Gender Studies · Medicine · Migration, Health and Trauma · Psychology · Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Transitions Into and Out of Perceived Foreign-Origin Discrimination Among Marriage-Migrant Women in South Korea
Life Course Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Chronic Disease Accumulation in Mid- to Late Adulthood
“Not only standing for, but standing up for diversity”
Racialized incorporation, migration timing, and cardiometabolic risk among Afro-Caribbean immigrants in the United States
Social disparities in impairment prevalence, a population-based study
Racial inequality, racial discrimination and obesity incidence in adults from the Elsa-Brasil cohort
The US Census and the People’s Health
Developing a deprivation index to study geographical health inequalities in Ecuador
The immediate effect of discrimination on mental health
Racial and Ethnic Differences in Everyday Discrimination Measures in a National Sample of U.S. Adults
Racial Differences in the Association Between School Quality and Adult Health
Global Health
Gender equality in science, medicine, and global health
Racism in healthcare
Stigma as an Unrecognized Determinant of Population Health
Global reach of ageism on older persons’ health
The Syndemics and Structural Violence of the Covid Pandemic
Understanding unequal ageing
The effects of social isolation stress and discrimination on mental health
Racism and Health
Structural racism and health inequities in the USA
The Health System Equity Action Framework
Del Acceso a la Adopción
The Influence of Structural Sexism and the #MeToo Movement on Sexual Harassment Complaints in the United States
Harm and Discrimination
When accountability meets power
Being an Indigenous-specific antiracist educator in health professions
Under the Radar
Empirical evidence on structural racism as a driver of racial inequities in Covid-19 mortality
Discrimination among American Indian and Alaska Native people
Structural racism theory, measurement, and methods
The Importance of Biobehavioral Research to Examine the Physiological Effects of Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in the Latinx Population
Racial and ethnic disparities in psychological care for individuals with Fasd
Racism in German healthcare
Vicarious structural racism and infant health disparities in Michigan
What’s Technology Got to Do With It? Power, Politics, and Health Equity Beyond Technological Triumphalism
Forging Resilience to HIV/Aids
Subjective Inequality and Well-being in South Korea
Actitudes discriminatorias hacia las mujeres en adolescentes
Community-Engaged, Participatory Team Science
What Drives Patient Preferences for AI Chatbots Over Doctors? A Survey Study Using the O-S-O-R Model
The relationship between union membership and workers’ well-being
Birth Justice. Die Bedeutung von Intersektionalität für die Begleitung von Schwangerschaft, Geburt und früher Elternschaft
Intersectional parental health inequities one year after childbirth
No One Wins
Unveiling double standards
A school-wide approach to cultural responsivity and student engagement
Stigma Next Door
School Fairness and Repeated Bullying Victimization Among High School Students
Stakeholder Perceptions and Experiences Regarding Access to Contraception and Abortion for Transgender, Non-Binary, and Gender-Expansive Individuals Assigned Female at Birth in the U.S
Resilience and Its Limits
“If I'm a naturopath, It's because I trust nature above everything else”
An exploration of discrimination in healthcare for young women in Scotland
Has population mental health returned to pre-pandemic levels, among and between racialized groups and by immigration status
Modeling the relationships between historical redlining, urban heat, and heat-related emergency department visits
Structural Racism-Related State Laws and Healthcare Access Among Black, Latine, and White U.S. Adults
Vigilance and Well-Being in Daily Life
Skin Tone, Racial/Ethnic, and Gender Differences in Self-Reported Mental and Physical Health among U.S. Lawful Permanent Resident Immigrants
Analyzing multiple types of discrimination using implicit and explicit measures, comparing target vs. Dominant groups, in a study of smoking/vaping among community health center members in Boston, Massachusetts (2020–2022)
Adverse Infant Health Outcomes Increased After the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election Among Non-White U.S.-born and Foreign-born Mothers
The Human Right to Health
Inequidad en la utilización de servicios de salud reproductiva en Colombia en mujeres indígenas y afrodescendientes
Insufficient
Incorporating Measures of Structural Racism into Population Studies of Reproductive Health in the United States
Experiences of Discrimination Among Women and Gender Diverse Veterans Using Veterans Health Administration Health Care
Racism as a Threat to Palestinian Health Equity
Employee Experiences with a Newly Adopted Paid Parental Leave Policy
Manifestations and Lived Experiences of Structural Racism for Racial and Ethnic Minority Communities Affected by HIV Across the United States
Midlife Women’s Misaligned Educational Expectations and Serious Mental Illness
Racial disparities in Covid-19 pandemic cases, hospitalisations, and deaths
Stories From Black Women in Iowa About Reproductive Health Care Experiences, Self‐Advocacy, and Recommendations for Change
Young people's perspectives on addressing UK health inequalities
Fighting the “Bog Standard”
Autopercepção de discriminação e avaliação do atendimento em serviços de saúde no Brasil
Significance of Home Visiting in Providing Care to Filipino Mothers and Their Infants During the Postpartum Period
Sexual and gender minority health vulnerabilities during the Covid ‐19 health crisis
Associations between perceived discrimination experiences, treatment adherence self-efficacy, and depressive symptoms among people living with HIV in the Southern United States
Navigating racialised healthcare
Measuring the spatial scale of structural racism and discrimination
Coping with stigma and choosing silence
Memory trajectories by migration status and gender
Measuring multidimensional structural racism across the lifecourse and its relation to cardiometabolic health
Interactive Relations Across Dimensions of Interpersonal-Level Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms to Carotid Intimal-Medial Thickening in African Americans
Beyond Neighborhood Disadvantage
Applying a psychosocial pathways model to improving mental health and reducing health inequalities
Perceived discrimination and mental health in the Japanese general population
Temporalities of lead toxicity
Mapping Social and Emotional Pathways from Racism to Adverse Health
No equity without equality
San’yas Indigenous Cultural Safety Training as an Educational Intervention
Trauma, bicultural immersion, and growing into self
Publicly housed Black mothers' experiences of structural racism in their everyday lives
African American Unemployment and the Disparity in Periviable Births
Racial Inequalities in Oral Health
Racial Discrimination and Health-Related Quality of Life
Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Laryngeal Cancer Care
The Influence of Racial/Ethnic Discrimination Experiences on Cigarette Craving for African American and Hispanic Smokers
The Relationship Between Subjective Social Status, Mental Health Disparities, and the Mediating Role of Discrimination Among Latinx Populations
Structural Racism and Covid-19 in the USA
Relationship Between Residential Racial and Economic Segregation and Main Causes of Death in US Counties
A Common Destiny
Black identities
Studying Human Behavior
Epidemiology and the People’s Health
The Velvet Glove
Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models
Real Science
A Life Course Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology
Self-reported experiences of everyday discrimination are associated with elevated C-reactive protein levels in older African-American adults
Epi + demos + cracy
The Real Record on Racial Attitudes
Racism and Child Health
Segregation, Poverty, and Empowerment
HIV Infection Risk Factors Among Male-to-Female Transgender Persons
Internalized homophobia and internalizing mental health problems
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Health
Social Inequality and Racial Discrimination
Discrimination in health care against people with mental illness
Racism and Hypertension
Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults
Perceptions of Race/Ethnicity-Based Discrimination
Perceived racism and blood pressure
Workplace Sexual Harassment 30 Years on
Racial Discrimination and Breast Cancer Incidence in US Black Women
The Concepts and Principles of Equity and Health
Racial Discrimination and Health Among Asian Americans
Internalized homophobia and health issues affecting lesbians and gay men
Relationship of racial stressors to blood pressure responses and anger expression in Black college students.
Is Segregation Bad for Your Health?
Public Health and the Epidemic of Incarceration
Embodying Inequality
Racism and Cardiovascular Disease in African Americans
Coping with racism
Health Disparities and Health Equity
Gender and global health
Elucidating the Role of Place in Health Care Disparities
Environmental Justice
A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health
The Inverse Care Law
Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century
Implicit Measures in Social Cognition Research
Discrimination and racial disparities in health
Closing the gap in a generation
Racial attitudes in America
Hierarchical linear models
The bell curve
In the Name of Eugenics
Health and Human Rights in a Changing World
Black Feminist Thought
Racism, Sexism, and Social Class
The Personal/Group Discrimination Discrepancy
Environmental Justice
Black Women, Work, Stress, and Perceived Discrimination
US Socioeconomic and Racial Differences in Health
Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health
Ageism
State's Laws on Race and Color
Implicit Measures Reveal Evidence of Personal Discrimination
Physicians’ attitudes toward aging, the aged, and the provision of geriatric care
Racial/ethnic residential segregation
Racial discrimination and health
Data, “race,” and politics
Perceived discrimination and health
Appendix I
Intersectionality, Metaphors, and the Multiplicity of Gender
Becoming American
South African People Power since the mid-1980s
Who, and what, causes health inequities? Reflections on emerging debates from an exploratory Latin American/North American workshop
Embodiment
A two way view of gender bias in medicine
Occupational, social, and relationship hazards and psychological distress among low-income workers
Understanding Everyday Racism
Conceptualizing and Measuring Historical Trauma Among American Indian People
The Impact of Institutional Discrimination on Psychiatric Disorders in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations
The Health and Physique of the Negro American
Future Directions in Residential Segregation and Health Research
Racial discrimination and blood pressure
The Unique Impact of Abolition of Jim Crow Laws on Reducing Inequities in Infant Death Rates and Implications for Choice of Comparison Groups in Analyzing Societal Determinants of Health
State-Level Policies and Psychiatric Morbidity In Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations
Key Challenges to Achieving Health for All in an Inequitable Society
Who’s Using and Who’s Doing Time
The State of Research on Racial/Ethnic Discrimination in The Receipt of Health Care
The New Jim Crow
Internalized Heterosexism
Chronic Exposure to Everyday Discrimination and Coronary Artery Calcification in African-American Women
Racism and Social Capital
Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States
Perceived Discrimination and Hypertension Among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study
Combining Explicit and Implicit Measures of Racial Discrimination in Health Research
Perceived antigay discrimination and physical health outcomes
Methods for the Scientific Study of Discrimination and Health
Racial Discrimination, Psychological Distress, and Self-Rated Health Among US-Born and Foreign-Born Black Americans
Discrimination, Symptoms of Depression, and Self-Rated Health Among African American Women in Detroit
A Life Course Perspective on How Racism May Be Related to Health Inequities
Race, Race-Based Discrimination, and Health Outcomes Among African Americans
Prevalence and correlates of everyday discrimination among U.S. Latinos
A Nationwide Study of Discrimination and Chronic Health Conditions Among Asian Americans
Racism and Mental Health
Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test
Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test
| Unique citing works | 363 |
|---|---|
| Citations per year | 33 |
| Citation span | 2015 - 2026 (12) |
| Citation velocity | current |
| Highly cited | Yes |
| Citation types | Neutral: 352 |